tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-46054954174638100122024-03-14T02:41:52.774+00:00PhD studies in human rightsA weblog for students engaged in doctoral studies in the field of human rights. It is intended to provide information about contemporary developments, references to new publications and material of a practical nature.William A. Schabashttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17552332133145290879noreply@blogger.comBlogger1363125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-52206471574689718292018-06-26T19:38:00.001+01:002018-06-26T20:18:39.558+01:00The Bemba Appeal: A Fragmented Appeals Chamber Destablises the Law and Practice of the ICC<b>Joseph Powderly and Niamh Hayes</b><br />
<br />
The decision issued by the majority of the ICC Appeals Chamber in the Bemba case on Friday 8 June – and the multiple separate and dissenting opinions published simultaneously and subsequently – have been the subject of intense discussion among academics and practitioners. It is disappointing that some of the debate, at least online, has been portrayed as a division along partisan lines; with those who have expressed concern about the outcome of the case portrayed as reactionary or in thrall to the emotional impact on victims or the self-interest of the OTP, while those who have been less critical of the content of the opinions have been lauded for their objective analysis of substantive legal issues. It is possible to view the Majority’s decision and reasoning as flawed without necessarily subscribing to the viewpoint that any acquittal represents a failure to deliver justice or a disaster for the Court. Likewise, it is possible to believe that the decision to overturn Bemba’s conviction was the correct one in the circumstances without endorsing all of the procedural and substantive conclusions reached by the judges. This post will highlight three issues which, in the view of the authors, represent a troubling precedent and have the potential to paralyse the work of the ICC and regress the development of international criminal law more generally – not because Jean-Pierre Bemba was acquitted, but because of the standard of reasoning and the legal and procedural analysis applied by the Majority. <br />
<br />
<b>The divergence of views among the Appeals Chamber on key points</b><br />
Firstly, the multiplicity of opinions and issues discussed within them actually confuse rather than clarify the reasoning of the judges. The Bemba appeal judgement consists of four separate opinions – the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2018_02984.PDF">Majority Decision</a>, issued on behalf of Judges Morrison, van den Wyngaert and Eboe-Osuji, the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/RelatedRecords/CR2018_02987.PDF">Dissenting Opinio</a>n of Judges Monageng and Hofmanski, and then two separate opinions from different factions within the Majority, one <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/RelatedRecords/CR2018_02989.PDF">Joint Separate Opinion</a> from Judge Morrison and Judge van den Wyngaert and one <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/RelatedRecords/CR2018_03077.PDF">Separate Opinion</a> from Judge Eboe-Osuji (which was not made public until Friday 15 June, one week after the rest of the decisions). The Majority Decision is remarkably short for a substantive appeal judgement at only 80 pages; the Dissenting Opinion is 269 pages long and includes a detailed analysis of the evidence; the Joint Separate Opinion from Judge Morrison and Judge van den Wyngaert is a mere 34 pages long but addresses a wide range of issues not discussed in the Majority Decision; while Judge Eboe-Osuji’s Separate Opinion is 117 pages long and likewise discusses many questions of law other than the grounds of appeal which were held to be determinative in the Majority Decision. It appears that Judges Morrison, van den Wyngaert and Eboe-Osuji agreed only on the specific grounds of appeal upheld in the Majority Decision, but held divergent opinions on other legal issues which necessitated the issuance of two separate opinions to expound in greater detail. <br />
<br />
Although a 3-2 split between Appeals Chamber judges and the issuance of separate or dissenting opinions is not unusual or unprecedented, it is particularly unfortunate in this case – only the third substantive appeal judgement in the ICC’s history – because it appears to indicate a significant lack of agreement between the five judges on important issues of law, and therefore makes it more difficult for parties in future cases and even other judges at the pre-trial and trial phase to assess how best to comply with its findings. For example, the judges were split 3-2 on the appropriate standard of appellate review, 2-2-1 on the appropriate disposition (Judge Eboe-Osuji had originally favoured a retrial but relented in order to avoid “an inconclusive judgement” – Separate Opinion, para 22), 2-2-1 on whether the contextual elements for crimes against humanity had been established (treating the assessment of the contextual elements in paras 57-72 of the Joint Separate Opinion and Judge Eboe-Osuji’s more abstract discussion of the organisational policy for crimes against humanity at paras 283-289 of his Separate Opinion as distinct findings on Ground IV of the appeal), 3-2 on whether only allegations explicitly included in the Document Containing the Charges and the Confirmation Decision can form the basis of a conviction (although Judge Eboe-Osuji expressed a separate opinion as to whether the Trial Chamber can amend the indictment after the start of the trial, section VI) and 2-2-1 on the correct approach to causation as an element of command responsibility (this issue was also subject to different interpretations in the Dissenting Opinion, Joint Separate Opinion and Separate Opinion). <br />
<br />
These are important legal issues which will have significant implications for future cases, and although all of the decisions expressed regret at the lack of unanimity, none addressed in any detail how their disparate conclusions and approaches should be interpreted or relied on by the parties or judges in future cases. It is interesting to note that this was the last decision issued by Judge van den Wyngaert (for the Majority) and Judge Monageng (for the Minority) before their term of office as judges expired, which means that the Appeals Chamber now consists of two judges from the Majority, one from the Minority and two newly-appointed judges (Judge Ibáñez Carranza and Judge Bossa) who have not previously ruled on these issues at the ICC. How should the OTP or the Trial Chamber currently hearing the Ongwen case, which includes allegations based on command responsibility, deal with the issue of causation, for example, in which there was no clear majority among any of the judges? How, as is discussed further below, should the OTP and Trial Chambers in the three current trials treat allegations which were not explicitly included in the Confirmation of Charges decision? How should those Trial Chambers formulate their eventual trial judgements to provide sufficiently exhaustive reasoning and conclusions on specific pieces of evidence to pre-empt the Appeals Chambers’ newly-announced standard of appellate review? In that context, the reference in <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=180613-OTP-stat">Prosecutor Bensouda’s statement</a> to the Majority’s departure from previously accepted standards and jurisprudence and the impossibility of further appeals should be seen as expressing concern about a lack of clarity for how the OTP should approach future cases and not, as <a href="http://opiniojuris.org/2018/06/18/some-reflections-on-the-bemba-appeals-chamber-judgment/">one commentator</a> put it, “an emotional rejection of the Appeals Chamber’s majority view, instead of… a self-critical analysis of its work”. <br />
<br />
It is ironic that the Majority Decision and both Separate Opinions from the three Majority judges spoke about the importance of exhaustiveness and clarity of judicial reasoning. Although it is clear which two grounds of appeal the Majority felt were determinative (the scope of which criminal acts were included in the conviction and the Trial Chamber’s assessment of whether Bemba had taken all necessary and reasonable measures to prevent or punish crimes committed by MLC troops under his effective control), they do not provide an extensive discussion of these issues, the evidence assessed by the Trial Chamber relating to necessary or reasonable measures, or prior caselaw. Some of the more alarming pronouncements – such as the suggestion in paragraph 170 of the Majority Decision that “[c]ommanders are allowed to make a cost/benefit analysis when deciding which measures to take”, a statement which seems to infer a quasi-‘military necessity’ defence to a commander’s omissions – are stated as a declarative sentence and not supported by reference to any jurisprudence or academic commentary. Judge Eboe-Osuji states in paragraph 31 of his Separate Opinion that “a key motivation” for his discussion of legal issues outside the scope of the appeal “is to assist in the understanding of those aspects of the law… which have vexed the mind of jurists over the years”. However, the fact that his opinions on those issues are restricted to his Separate Opinion makes it clear that they were not shared by his fellow judges in the Majority or they would have been included in the Majority Decision. <br />
<br />
Judge Morrison and van den Wyngaert say that the Chamber’s failure to achieve unanimity “is not just a matter of difference of opinion, but appears to be a fundamental difference in the way we look at our mandates as international judges” [Joint Separate Opinion, para 4]. It is interesting to note that ten years ago, the Appeals Chamber of the ICTY in the Orić case had an opportunity to dramatically alter the parameters of command responsibility by extending it to the actions and omissions of commanders in relation to crimes committed by their forces before they had assumed command – essentially, a failure to punish crimes committed at a time when the commander did not have effective control over the direct perpetrators. In the Hadžihasanović appeals judgement only a few months earlier, Judge Shahabuddeen had entered a separate dissenting opinion arguing in favour of the extension of potential liability to subsequently appointed commanders. In the Orić appeal, however, he declined to join with dissenting Judges Schomburg and Liu to adopt that standard by bare majority, stating:<br />
<blockquote>“a decision to reverse turns upon more than theoretical correctness; it turns upon larger principles concerning the maintenance of the jurisprudence, judicial security and predictability…. Since I was one of the two dissenting judges in the earlier case… a reversal should await such time when a more solid majority shares th[ose] views”. [paras 14-15]</blockquote>It is unfortunate that the Majority in Bemba did not share this degree of judicial restraint or consideration for the perception of legal authority which attaches to bare majority appellate decisions. <br />
<br />
<b>Implications for the confirmation of charges process</b><br />
The Majority held that specific criminal acts of rape, murder and pillage which were added to the case after the issuance of the Confirmation of Charges decision could not form part of Bemba’s conviction because they “did not form part of the ‘facts and circumstances described in the charges’ – to the extent that the document containing the charges was not amended to reflect them” [Majority Decision, paras 74-115]. The framing of the charges in the Document Containing the Charges (DCC) and the operative part of the Confirmation Decision was formulated to include the temporal and geographic scope of ‘categories of crimes’ – murder, rape and pillage – followed by a non-exhaustive list of specific criminal acts, prefaced by the phrase “including, but not limited to”. The Majority held that this formulation was “too broad to amount to a meaningful description of the charges against Mr Bemba” [Majority Decision, para 110] and that his conviction would therefore be limited to only those specific individual criminal acts which had been mentioned in the Confirmation Decision and Amended DCC. The Majority therefore excluded eighteen acts of murder, rape and pillage which had been proven beyond a reasonable doubt but had not been explicitly included in the DCC and Confirmation Decision [Majority Decision, paras 116-117]. <br />
<br />
The Majority’s views on the level of forensic detail which is necessary at the confirmation phase has serious implications for future cases at the Court. The confirmation of charges process is provided for in Article 61 of the Rome Statute, but has been <a href="https://www.wcl.american.edu/impact/initiatives-programs/warcrimes/our-projects/icc-legal-analysis-and-education-project/reports/report-19-the-confirmation-of-charges-process-at-the-icc-a-critical-assessment-and-recommendations-for-change/">criticized</a> as unwieldy and “failing to reach its intended goals” in practice. Prosecutors at the ad hoc Tribunals routinely used the ‘including but not limited to’ formulation in their Indictments, although their pre-trial procedural system did not include an equivalent to the confirmation of charges process. The Majority condemned the formulation of the charges as potentially including “all such crimes committed by MLC soldiers in a territory of more than 600,000 square kilometers… over a period of more than four and a half months” [Majority Decision, para 103] but did not show what specific prejudice had been suffered by Mr Bemba’s defence by the inclusion of evidence of individual criminal acts of rape, murder and pillage at trial which had not been explicitly mentioned in the Confirmation Decision. The purpose of the confirmation of charges process is, as the Minority put it, “determining whether there is a case to be tried… and not… confirming or crystallising the totality of the factual allegations underpinning these charges for the purposes of the trial” [Dissenting Opinion, para 21]. <br />
<br />
It is hard not to see the Majority’s findings on this issue as having substituted their own preferred procedural and evidential approach in place of the process which has been followed in all cases at the ICC to date and – as Alex Whiting <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/57760/appeals-judges-turn-icc-head-bemba-decision/">has pointed out</a> – which had previously been endorsed by the Appeals Chamber in the Lubanga case. The OTP has rightly been criticized by judges in the past for the practice of ‘phased investigations’; obtaining just enough evidence to meet the ‘reasonable grounds to believe’ standard for an arrest warrant, then a little more to establish ‘substantial grounds to believe’ for the confirmation hearing, then hoping to find enough to meet the ‘beyond reasonable doubt’ threshold prior to the trial [Kenyatta Confirmation Decision, <a href="http://www.worldcourts.com/icc/eng/decisions/2012.01.23_Prosecutor_v_Muthaura.pdf">Dissenting Opinion of Judge Kaul</a>, para 52]. However, there is a very distinct difference between condemning deliberately incomplete investigations and rejecting all evidence of individual criminal acts obtained or introduced post-confirmation. Judge van den Wyngaert has made it clear in the past that she <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/138245541/26-04-2013-Annex-II-ICC-Decision-on-Defence-Application-Pursuant-to-Article-64-4-and-Related-Requests">does not approve</a> of the use of post-confirmation documentary evidence or interviews, although the Appeals Chamber has <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2006_03332.PDF">previously recognized</a> that the Prosecution is not obliged by the Statute to complete all investigations prior to the confirmation hearing, although any additional evidence must still be disclosed to the defence in a timely manner [paras 52-55]. <br />
<br />
The Majority’s approach has the potential to massively disrupt both current and future investigations and cases. It means, in essence, that the OTP must mention every fact and allegation which may become relevant to its case by the time the Document Containing the Charges is filed – not just each individual criminal act, but also other allegations relating to the mode of liability. The Majority’s absolutist approach to the confirmation process led to the condemnation of one of the Trial Chamber’s key findings relating to whether Mr Bemba had in fact taken all necessary and reasonable measures to prevent or punish crimes, one of which was his failure to exercise his power to withdraw or redeploy MLC troops. However, since the redeployment of troops was not explicitly mentioned in the Amended DCC, the Majority held that Mr Bemba had not been given sufficient notice of this issue and that the Trial Chamber should not have relied on it [Majority Decision, paras 185-188]. Leaving aside the ridiculousness of the suggestion that Mr Bemba may not have realised that his ability to redeploy or withdraw troops from the army he created could be relevant to his prosecution for command responsibility, the implication and consequences of the Majority’s proscription are severe. <br />
<br />
Given the time limits on submitting the DCC, holding a confirmation hearing and issuing the Confirmation Decision once an accused has made their first appearance, and the fact that the OTP often has no way of knowing whether an accused person will come into the custody of the Court one week or ten years after the issuance of an arrest warrant, the OTP will now be taking a big risk by pulling the trigger on any case unless they are effectively trial-ready. In terms of allocation of resources, the Investigation Division will become even more important since every scrap of evidence necessary for all parts of the case theory will now need to be verified, analysed and incorporated into the charging documents years before the trial begins. The confirmation of charges process, already criticized for being a ‘mini trial’, will now need to operate as exactly that since it will permanently dictate not just the general factual parameters of the charges but the reliability of all specific items of evidence which may become relevant at trial. In addition, evidence introduced by the Legal Representative of Victims during the trial cannot, on the basis of the Majority’s decision, now be included within any subsequent conviction unless the specific factual allegation was mentioned in the Confirmation Decision, which would not have been possible in the Bemba case since the Legal Representative of Victims was not authorized to submit evidence at the pre-trial phase [Majority Decision, para 96]. <br />
<br />
What should be done about evidence which, through no fault of the parties, does not become available prior to the issuance of the Confirmation Decision or the submission of the Amended DCC? It is not difficult to think of situations where a witness may not be confident about coming forward unless they are sure that the defendant will actually stand trial, particularly when the defendant is a senior political or military figure. The judges of the Majority resolutely refused to engage with the practical consequences of their findings on the scope of the charges, beyond the immediate implications for Mr Bemba’s appeal. The Majority Decision dodged the question entirely by stating that “this is not to say that adding specific criminal acts after confirmation would in all circumstances require an amendment to the charges – this is a question that may be left open for the purposes of disposing of the present ground of appeal” [para 115]. Judges Morrison and van den Wyngaert acknowledged but coyly sidestepped the “pragmatic concerns” about the realistic capacity of the OTP and the Pre-Trial Chamber to include every single underlying act in the DCC and Confirmation Decision, saying only that “to accept [these arguments] would be to affirm that the confirmation process is unfit for purpose” [Joint Separate Opinion, para 28]. Judge Eboe-Osuji, by contrast, departed from all four of his fellow judges and <a href="https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/bb20f5/pdf/">previous Appeals Chamber jurisprudence</a> by pronouncing unilaterally that, in his view, it is possible for the Trial Chamber to amend the scope of the charges, if not the charges themselves, after the beginning of the trial [Separate Opinion, para 97-150]. Despite four separate opinions, the OTP and even their fellow judges in the Pre-Trial and Trial Chambers are left with no clarity or certainty on such a vital procedural issue. <br />
<br />
<b>‘Necessary and reasonable measures’ to prevent or punish crimes of sexual violence</b><br />
One final troubling aspect of the Appeals Chamber decision is the lack of analysis of whether the measures taken by Mr Bemba were sufficient to investigate, prevent or punish acts of rape committed by MLC troops. As Susana SáCouto has also <a href="https://www.ijmonitor.org/2018/06/the-impact-of-the-appeals-chamber-decision-in-bemba-impunity-for-sexual-and-gender-based-crimes/">highlighted</a>, the Trial Chamber’s assessment of the specific measures taken noted the fact that the Mondongo Inquiry file did not pursue any allegations of rape, and the mandate of the Zongo Commission was restricted to only the question of the transport of pillaged goods [Trial Judgement, paras 720, 722 and 726], which the Trial Chamber characterized as a “grossly inadequate response” [para 727]. The Trial Judgement did not differentiate between the sufficiency of measures taken to prevent or punish murder, rape and pillage, because it found that Mr Bemba had not taken ‘all necessary or reasonable measures’ to address any of the crimes. It did, however, find that the failure to provide MLC soldiers with adequate pay led them to “self-compensate through acts of pillaging and rape” [Trial Judgement, para 678].<br />
<br />
Although the judges of the Appeals Chamber did discuss the issue of whether Mr Bemba had adequate notice of the crime of murder [Minority Decision, paras 307-318] and re-assessed the Trial Chamber’s conclusions on Mr Bemba’s <a href="https://www.ejiltalk.org/commanders-motivations-in-bemba/">motivations</a> for pursuing the measures he did, none of the decisions analysed the question of whether the measures taken were sufficient to investigate, prevent or punish each of the specific crimes. It seems odd to treat the crimes committed by MLC troops as one homogenous block and not to consider the extent to which the defendant’s response met the ‘all necessary and reasonable measures’ standard for each category of crime, particularly when the crimes were considered separately for the purpose of the ‘actual knowledge’ standard and Mr Bemba himself argued that “the Trial Chamber erred by assessing the evidence relating to crimes of murder, rape and pillage together” for the purposes of establishing notice [Minority Decision, para 308]. <br />
<br />
This point is not raised merely to argue against Mr Bemba’s acquittal on the charge of rape; if it had been applied at the trial phase it is possible that another Trial Chamber could have found that Mr Bemba had in fact taken all necessary and reasonable measures to investigate and punish the crime of pillage, since many of the measures that were taken focused specifically on that category of crime. However, given the nature of the crime of rape and sexual violence and the degree of impunity traditionally enjoyed by direct perpetrators, it does not seem irrational to question whether a specific commander had taken all necessary and reasonable measures to address the crime of rape in particular, since it is so frequently overlooked in internal disciplinary mechanisms and domestic justice systems. It would be remarkable and deeply unfortunate if the Bemba appeal judgement became an authority for the proposition that all a commander needs to do to indemnify himself against acts of rape committed by troops under his effective control is to send a letter to an NGO, as Mr Bemba did with FIDH. For now, at least, the ICC’s conviction rate for sexual crimes returns to zero. <br />
<br />
<b>Conclusion</b><br />
Certainty and predictability of the law is a fundamental right for all parties in a criminal justice process – not just for the defence, but also for the prosecution, victims and first instance judges. It is arguable that if the Appeals Chamber had upheld Mr Bemba’s conviction by a bare majority, the decision may not have been the subject of such controversy. However, the most troubling aspects of this judgement – particularly the abrupt reformulation of the <a href="http://opiniojuris.org/2018/06/25/bemba-acquittal-rests-on-erroneous-application-of-appellate-review-standard/">standard of appellate review</a> and ostensible reconceptualization of the confirmation of charges process 15 years into the work of the Court – have implications far beyond the disposition of the case against Mr Bemba. If the judges of the Appeals Chamber wanted to make such dramatic changes to the applicable law and procedure of the Court, with such profound implications for all ongoing investigations and trials, it would have been preferable to do so in a more unanimous and less fragmented way in order to provide the necessary clarity and certainty for not only the parties but also their fellow judges at the pre-trial and trial phase. The Bemba Appeal Judgement may come to be seen in retrospect as a watershed moment for the law and practice of the Court, or it may prove to be merely an idiosyncratic, opportunistic and ultimately unsuccessful attempt at judicial law-making. <br />
<br />
<b>The opinions expressed above are the personal views of the author and not representative of any organization or institution. <i></i></b><br />
Niamh Hayeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14322835032041703478noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-86695752135785151652018-04-19T09:25:00.002+01:002018-04-19T09:25:52.814+01:00Fairness and the Parole Board<span style="font-family: cambria;">Following
the decision of a </span><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-42571219" style="font-family: cambria;">panel
of the Parole Board to direct the release on licence of Mr John Worboys</a><span style="font-family: cambria;"> – the
London cab driver convicted of serious sexual offences against female
passengers – interest in the work of the Board has soared</span><br />
<span style="font-family: cambria;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: cambria;">His Honour Jeremy Roberts QC, a </span><span style="font-family: cambria;">member of the Parole Board, has posted an interesting article following the High Court's decision in <i>Worboys </i>on the Britain in Europe <a href="https://www.brineurope.com/single-post/2018/04/19/BiE-expert-analysis-Worboys-and-challenges-to-judicial-independence">blog</a>. Readers of this blog may be particularly interested to read his insights on hearsay evidence and fairness in Parole Board proceedings. The full analysis can be found <a href="https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/e6ec6f_6adf0d6b71d54a56add1e66a3dab0f75.pdf">here</a>.</span>Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-44757909403827963162018-02-16T09:13:00.000+00:002018-02-16T09:13:10.878+00:00Judicial Independence in Times of Crisis<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-O6NNvnvvaOY/Woafh5MqE_I/AAAAAAAAA3s/xJtDI4XhYDoDYY5U-FFf2Mq7Eb123dxGgCEwYBhgL/s1600/Challenges%252520to%252520Judicial%252520Independence_e-flyer-4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1181" data-original-width="946" height="320" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-O6NNvnvvaOY/Woafh5MqE_I/AAAAAAAAA3s/xJtDI4XhYDoDYY5U-FFf2Mq7Eb123dxGgCEwYBhgL/s320/Challenges%252520to%252520Judicial%252520Independence_e-flyer-4.jpg" width="256" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
There are still a small number of guest places available for our British Academy conference in March on 'Challenges to Judicial Independence in Times of Crisis'. Full details and a registration link are <a href="https://www.britac.ac.uk/events/challenges-judicial-independence-times-crisis">here</a>. Book now to avoid disappointment!<br />
<br />
Speakers include:<br />
Lord Kerr of Tonaghmore, Justice of the Supreme Court<br />
Lord Thomas of Cwmgiedd, former Lord Justice of England and Wales<br />
M Guy Canivet, former President, Cour de Cassation<br />
Sir Konrad Schiemann, former Judge of the Court of Justice of the European Union<br />
His Honour Jeremy Roberts QC, The Parole Board for England and Wales<br />
Dame Sue Carr, High Court, Midland Circuit<br />
Professor Fiona De Londras, University of Birmingham<br />
Professor David Sklansky, Stanford University<br />
Professor John Jackson, University of Nottingham<br />
Professor Kate Malleson, Queen Mary University of London<br />
Professor Ilias G. Anagnostopoulos, Athens Law School<br />
Professor Martina Feilzer, Bangor University<br />
Professor Raphaële Parizot, Université Paris-Nanterre<br />
Professor Julian Petley, Brunel University London<br />
Professor Vian Bakir, Bangor University<br />
Dr Daniel Aguirre, University of Greenwich<br />
Dr Moa Bladini, University of Gothenburg<br />
Dr Lawrence McNamara, Bingham Centre for the Rule of Law and University of York<br />
Dr Stephen Skinner, University of Exeter<br />
Dr Dimitrios Giannoulopoulos, Brunel University<br />
Lt. Col. Harry Mynors, Army Legal Service<br />
Dr Yvonne McDermott Rees, Swansea UniversityYvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-7178753053442192222018-02-16T09:00:00.000+00:002018-02-16T09:00:23.517+00:00Guest post: Michael Kearney, 'Al-Werfalli and the Presumption of Innocence'
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<span lang="EN-IE"><i>We are delighted to welcome <a href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/profiles/306146">Dr. Michael Kearney</a>, Senior Lecturer in Law at the University of Sussex, for this guest post.</i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE">In welcoming students to a black letter international
crimes module, one of the initial, contextual, points worth emphasising is that
since the individuals brought before international courts do tend to have been
obviously responsible for serious crimes, we have to double down on our
commitment to the presumption of innocence. It’s useful to acknowledge, if only
by reference to logistics, the selectivity of international courts, and the
unease that only a few individuals from among a potentially huge cast in any
scenario are being prosecuted. It’s also helpful to flag up, how, since an
accused may have been quite remote or detached from the physical perpetration
of crimes, the appropriate interpretation and application of the various modes
of liability will be crucial to the outcome of a case.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE">Last week I asked LLM/MA students to read
the ICC’s August 2017 <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/record.aspx?docNo=ICC-01/11-01/17-2">Arrest
Warrant</a><span class="MsoHyperlink">,</span> and subsequent statements made by
the OTP, in the case against Mahmoud Al-Werfalli in the situation in Libya. It
seemed a useful first case to review in a new module since it was both <a href="http://www.libyanexpress.com/al-werfalli-released-after-one-day-long-investigation/">topical</a>
and atypically straightforward: the accused was charged as a physical
perpetrator of murder as a war crime, so no need for convoluted engagement with
indirect coperpetration or the contextual elements of crimes against humanity. Considering
the executions in question had been recorded and videos of them posted online,
and the accused having been detained then released by his superiors, this could
be regarded as having been as straightforward a prosecution as the OTP would
get. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE">So straightforward in fact that the Arrest
Warrant, in addressing whether the evidence showed reasonable grounds to the
believe Al-Werfalli had committed a crime within the Court’s jurisdiction had
the following to say at para 28: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE">“Further, the
Chamber finds that Mr Al-Werfalli <i>personally committed</i> the murders described in
Incidents 1, 2, 3 and one of the murders described in Incident 7, and that he
ordered, as a superior to others in the Al-Saiqa Brigade, the commission of the
murders described in Incidents 4, 5, 6, and 19 of the murders described in
Incident 7. The Chamber is further satisfied that he acted with intent and
knowledge, and that he was aware of the status of the victims and of the
factual circumstances that established the existence of the non-international
armed conflict.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE">To be clear, the paragraph continues in the
next sentence to note that the Chamber ‘therefore finds reasonable grounds to
believe that Mr Al-Werfalli bears individual criminal responsibility as a
direct perpetrator’, while the summing up declaration notes ‘alleged criminal
responsibility’. The OTP’s <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=170815-otp-stat">statement</a>
following issuance of the warrant clearly asserts: ‘Mr al-Werfalli is presumed
innocent until proven guilty and the burden is on my Office to prove that he is
guilty of the crimes we allege he </span>committed. My Office can only discharge that
burden if Mr al-Werfalli appears before ICC judges.’</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE">Previously, in providing students with
examples of the type of legal reasoning which would result in their struggling
to pass a module, I reached for former Prosecutor Ocampo’s July 2010 <i>Guardian
</i>piece on the Arrest Warrant for Al Bashir. While the entire proceedings
revolved around the meaning of ‘reasonable grounds to believe’, Ocampo falsely <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/libertycentral/2010/jul/15/world-cannot-ignore-darfur">asserted</a>
that a man who had never been brought before a judge, had been found by the ICC
to be ‘deliberately inflicting on the Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa ethnic groups
living conditions calculated to bring about their physical destruction.’ <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE">Much has been made of the purpose of
proceedings before the ICC’s Pre Trial Chambers, tending towards the consensus
that while crucial, this particular stage should not be understood as a
mini-trial. Introducing a case such as that against Al Werfalli, where the
evidence against him is so glaringly odius and obvious, should be the perfect
opportunity to illustrate, as per the OTP’s statement above, that the man
remains innocent until proven otherwise. It’s difficult, when introducing
students to the study of international criminal law, to have to somehow try and
explain how it is that ICC judges, in drafting this Warrant, could, to such a
degree, appear to violate that fundamental principle of criminal law which is
common knowledge to all laypersons.</span></div>
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<!--StartFragment--><!--EndFragment-->Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-72959883761018641802017-12-11T14:26:00.000+00:002017-12-11T14:26:50.384+00:00Important essays on myriad international law subfields in new OUP book, "Arcs of Global Justice: Essays in Honour of William A. Schabas"<i>Professor Diane Marie Amann provided this guest post, which is <a href="https://dianemarieamann.com/2017/12/11/important-essays-on-myriad-international-law-subfields-in-our-new-oup-book-arcs-of-global-justice-essays-in-honour-of-william-a-schabas/">cross-posted</a> from her blog.</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
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<span lang="EN-US">LONDON – Building on my earlier <a href="https://humanrightsdoctorate.blogspot.nl/2017/12/optimism-about-arcs-of-global-justice.html">post</a> about the magical London conference
launching <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arcs-of-global-justice-9780190272654?cc=gb&lang=en&"><em>Arcs
of Global Justice: Essays in Honour of William A. Schabas</em></a> (<a href="https://www.law.temple.edu/contact/margaret-m-deguzman/">Margaret M.
deGuzman</a> and <a href="http://www.law.uga.edu/profile/diane-marie-amann">Diane
Marie Amann</a> eds.), today's post profiles the book itself, which, thanks to
excellent assistance from John Louth, Blake Ratcliff, and their staff, has just
been published by <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arcs-of-global-justice-9780190272654?cc=gb&lang=en&">Oxford
University Press</a>. (The hardback may be ordered via <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arcs-of-global-justice-9780190272654?cc=gb&lang=en&">OUP</a>
or <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Arcs-Global-Justice-William-Schabas/dp/0190272651/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1512856157&sr=8-2&keywords=diane+amann">Amazon</a>,
and the book's also available on <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Arcs-Global-Justice-William-Schabas-ebook/dp/B0784YPBN5/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1512856157&sr=8-1&keywords=diane+amann">Kindle</a>.)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US">Very pleased to have coedited this volume with my colleague
Meg. The concept, in our words:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/where-do-we-go-here-delivered-11th-annual-sclc-convention">Martin
Luther King, Jr. once said 'the arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends
toward justice.'</a> Testing the optimism of that claim were the many fits and
starts in the struggle for human rights that King helped to catalyze. The same
is true of other events in the last half-century, from resistance to apartheid
and genocide to equal and fair treatment in domestic criminal justice systems,
to the formation of entities to prevent atrocities and to bring their
perpetrators to justice. Within this display of myriad arcs may be found the
many persons who helped shape this half-century of global justice-and prominent
among them is <a href="https://www.mdx.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-directory/profile/schabas-william">William
A. Schabas</a>. His panoramic scholarship includes dozens of books and hundreds
of articles, and he also has served as an influential policymaker, advocate,
and mentor.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US">This work honours William A. Schabas and his career with
essays by luminary scholars and jurists from Africa, Asia, Europe, and the
Americas. The essays examine contemporary, historical, cultural, and
theoretical aspects of the many arcs of global justice with which Professor
Schabas has engaged, in fields including public international law, human
rights, transitional justice, international criminal law, and capital
punishment.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US">In all, the book includes 29 contributions by 35 academics,
advocates, and jurists, as detailed in the table of contents below. Providing
jacket-cover testimonials were <a href="https://www.9bedfordrow.co.uk/our-team/barristers/steven-kay-qc/">Steven
Kay</a> QC, <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/people/prof-philippe-sands-qc">Philippe
Sands</a> QC, Professor and former Ambassador <a href="http://www.law.northwestern.edu/faculty/profiles/DavidScheffer/">David
Scheffer</a>, and Judge <a href="https://asp.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/asp/elections/judges/2009/nominations/Pages/van%20den%20wyngaert_%20christine.aspx">Christine
Van den Wyngaert</a>. We hope that you'll follow their recommendations and give
these important, substantive essays a very good read.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Arcs of
Global Justice: </span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
<strong>Essays in Honour of William A. Schabas</strong><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US">► <em>Foreword</em> by <a href="http://www.law.uga.edu/profile/diane-marie-amann">Diane Marie Amann</a>
and <a href="https://www.law.temple.edu/contact/margaret-m-deguzman/">Margaret
M. deGuzman</a>, coeditors<br />
► <em>Introduction: William Schabas: Portrait of a Scholar/Activist
Extraordinaire</em> by <a href="https://law.rutgers.edu/directory/view/rsclark">Roger
S. Clark</a>, Board of Governors Professor of Law, Rutgers University School of
Law<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Human Rights</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
► <em>Human Rights and International Criminal Justice in the Twenty First
Century: The End of the Post-WWII Phase and the Beginning of an Uncertain New
Era</em> by <a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/obituaries/ct-cherif-bassiouni-dies-met-20170926-story.html">M.
Cherif Bassiouni</a> (He died at age 79 in September, just weeks after he
completed final changes on this essay; as <a href="https://wp.me/p23zxL-1eX">posted</a>,
our conference included a memorial to him. At the time of his death, he was
Emeritus Professor of Law, DePaul University College of Law; Honorary
President, Siracusa Institute for Criminal Justice and Human Rights; and
Honorary President, L'Association internationale de droit pénal.)<br />
► <em>William Schabas, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and
International Human Rights Law</em> by Justice <a href="http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/bio-eng.aspx?id=thomas-albert-cromwell">Thomas
A. Cromwell</a>, Supreme Court of Canada, and <a href="https://www.law.cam.ac.uk/people/research-students/bruno-gelinas-faucher/5828">Bruno
Gélinas-Faucher</a>, formerly a law clerk on that court and now a Cambridge PhD
candidate<br />
► <em>The International Convention on the Protection of All Persons from
Enforced Disappearance, as a Victim-Oriented Treaty</em> by <a href="https://www.u-paris2.fr/fr/universite/enseignants-chercheurs/m-emmanuel-decaux">Emmanuel
Decaux</a>, Professor Emeritus, Université Paris 2 (Panthéon-Assas), and former
President, Committee on Enforced Disappearances<br />
► <em>The Politics of Sectarianism and its Reflection in Questions of
International Law & State Formation in The Middle East</em> by <a href="http://www.nuigalway.ie/research/human_rights/Staff/kathleen_cavanagh.html">Kathleen
Cavanaugh</a>, Senior Lecturer at the Irish Centre for Human Rights, National
University of Ireland Galway, and <a href="https://www.mdx.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-directory/profile/castellino-joshua">Joshua
Castellino</a>, Professor of Law & Dean of the School of Law, as well as
the Business School, at Middlesex University, London<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Capital Punishment</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
►<em> International Law and the Death Penalty: A Toothless Tiger, or a
Meaningful Force for Change?</em> by <a href="http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/faculty/bio_sandra_babcock.cfm">Sandra
L. Babcock</a>, Clinical Professor of Law at Cornell Law School and Faculty
Director of the Cornell Center on the Death Penalty Worldwide<br />
► <em>The UN Optional Protocol on the Abolition of the Death Penalty</em> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Bossuyt">Marc Bossuyt</a>, Fellow at
the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study, Emeritus Professor of the
University of Antwerp, Emeritus President of the Constitutional Court of
Belgium, and former Chairman of the UN Commission on Human Rights<br />
► <em>The Right to Life and the Progressive Abolition of the Death Penalty</em>
by <a href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Executions/Pages/ChristofHeyns.aspx">Christof
Heyns</a>, formerly the UN Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or
arbitrary executions from 2010 through 2016, and now a member of the UN Human
Rights Committee and Professor of Human Rights Law at the University of
Pretoria, <a href="https://www.cghr.polis.cam.ac.uk/about/people/thomas-probert">Thomas
Probert</a>, Research Associate, Centre of Governance & Human Rights,
University of Cambridge, and <a href="https://www.hrw.org/about/people/tess-borden">Tess Borden</a>, Aryeh
Neier Fellow at Human Rights Watch and the American Civil Liberties Union, and
former researcher for the UN Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or
arbitrary execution<br />
► <em>Progress and Trend of the Reform of the Death Penalty in China</em> by <a href="http://law.bnu.edu.cn/english/faculty/teaching3/25248.html">Zhao Bingzhi</a>,
Dean of the College for Criminal Law Science of Beijing Normal University,
President of the Criminal Law Research Association of China, Vice-President of
the International Association of Penal Law, and President of that association's
Chinese National Group<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">International Criminal Law</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
► <em>Criminal Law Philosophy in William Schabas' Scholarship</em> by <a href="https://www.law.temple.edu/contact/margaret-m-deguzman/">Margaret M.
deGuzman</a>, Professor of Law at Temple University’s Beasley School of Law<br />
► <em>Is the ICC Focusing too Much on Non-State Actors?</em> by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/law/about/profs/megret-frederic">Frédéric Mégret</a>,
Associate Professor and Dawson Scholar, Faculty of Law, McGill University<br />
► <em>The Principle of Legality at the Crossroads of Human Rights and
International Criminal Law</em> by <a href="http://www.nuigalway.ie/our-research/people/law/shanedarcy/">Shane Darcy</a>,
Senior Lecturer at the Irish Centre for Human Rights, National University of
Ireland Galway<br />
► <em>Revisiting the Sources of Applicable Law Before the ICC</em> by <a href="http://alainpellet.eu/biography/?lang=en">Alain Pellet</a>, Emeritus
Professor at the University of Paris Nanterre, former Chairperson of the UN
International Law Commission, President of the French Society for International
Law, Member of the Institut de droit international, as well as Counsel and
Advocate before the International Court of Justice, the International Tribunal
for the Law of the Sea, and other forums<br />
► <em>The ICC as a Work in Progress, for a World in Process</em> by <a href="http://www.college-de-france.fr/site/mireille-delmas-marty/">Mireille
Delmas-Marty</a>, Member, Institut de France, and Professor Emerita, Collège de
France de Paris<br />
► <em>Legacy in International Criminal Justice</em> by <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/staffmembers/carsten-stahn#tab-1">Carsten
Stahn</a>, Professor of International Criminal Law and Global Justice, Leiden
University<br />
► <em>Torture by Private Actors and 'Gold Plating' the Offence in National Law:
An Exchange of Emails in Honour of William Schabas</em> by <a href="http://graduateinstitute.ch/home/study/academicdepartments/international-law/people/resources/prof-clapham.html">Andrew
Clapham</a>, Professor of Public International Law at the Graduate
Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, and <a href="http://graduateinstitute.ch/directory/_/people/gaeta">Paola Gaeta</a>,
Professor of International Law and International Criminal Law at the Graduate
Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
► <em>Secrets and Surprises in the Travaux Préparatoires of the Genocide
Convention</em> by <a href="https://www.fichl.org/advisory-board/">Hirad Abtahi</a>,
First Legal Adviser, Head of the Legal and Enforcement Unit, at the Presidency
of the International Criminal Court, and <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/policy-institute/people/kpi-policy-experts/government/pwebb.aspx">Philippa
Webb</a>, Reader (Associate Professor) in Public International Law at King's
College London and a barrister at 20 Essex Street Chambers<br />
► <em>Perspectives on Cultural Genocide: From Criminal Law to Cultural
Diversity</em> by <a href="https://www.uel.ac.uk/staff/g/jeremie-gilbert">Jérémie
Gilbert</a>, Professor of International and Comparative Law, University of East
London<br />
► <em>Crimes Against Humanity: Repairing Title 18's Blind Spots</em> by <a href="https://law.stanford.edu/directory/beth-van-schaack/">Beth Van Schaack</a>,
Leah Kaplan Visiting Professor in Human Rights at Stanford Law School and
Visiting Scholar at the Center for International Security & Cooperation at
Stanford University<br />
► <em>A New Global Treaty on Crimes Against Humanity: Future Prospects</em> by <a href="https://law.wustl.edu/faculty/pages.aspx?id=390">Leila Nadya Sadat</a>,
James Carr Professor of International Criminal Law and Director of the Whitney
R. Harris World Law Institute at Washington University School of Law, Special
Adviser to the ICC Prosecutor on Crimes Against Humanity, and Director of the
Crimes Against Humanity Initiative<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Transitional Justice and Atrocity Prevention</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
►<em> Justice Outside of Criminal Courtrooms and Jailhouses</em> by <a href="https://law.wlu.edu/faculty/permanent-faculty/mark-drumbl">Mark A. Drumbl</a>,
Class of 1975 Alumni Professor of Law and Director, Transnational Law
Institute, Washington and Lee University School of Law<br />
► <em>Toward Greater Synergy between Courts and Truth Commissions in
Post-Conflict Contexts: Lessons from Sierra Leone</em> by <a href="https://law.fiu.edu/faculty/directory/charles-c-jalloh/">Charles Chernor
Jalloh</a>, Professor of Law, Florida International University, and a member of
the International Law Commission<br />
► <em>International Criminal Tribunals and Cooperation with States: Serbia and
the provision of evidence for the Slobodan Milosevic Trial at the ICTY</em> by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Nice">Geoffrey Nice</a> QC, a
barrister since 1971, formerly at the International Criminal Tribunal for the
Former Yugoslavia, and <a href="http://www.uva.nl/profiel/t/r/n.tromp-vrkic/n.tromp.html">Nevenka Tromp</a>,
Lecturer in East European Studies at the University of Amsterdam and former
member of the ICTY Leadership Research Team<br />
► <em>The Arc toward Justice </em>and<em> Peace</em> by <a href="http://law.nd.edu/directory/mary-ellen-oconnell/">Mary Ellen O'Connell</a>,
the Robert and Marion Short Chair in Law at the University of Notre Dame Law
School<br />
► <em>The Maintenance of International Peace and Security through Prevention of
Atrocity Crimes: The Question of Co-operation between the UN and regional
Arrangements</em> by <a href="http://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/special-adviser-prevention-genocide.html">Adama
Dieng</a>, UN Under-Secretary-General and Special Adviser on the Prevention of
Genocide, as well as former Registrar of the International Criminal Tribunal
for Rwanda and former Secretary-General of the International Commission of
Jurists<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<strong><span lang="EN-US">Justice in Culture and Practice</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
► <em>Law and Film: Curating Rights Cinema</em> by <a href="http://www.bbk.ac.uk/culture/staff/teaching-staff/emma-sandon">Emma
Sandon</a>, Senior Lecturer in Film and Television at Birkbeck, University of
London, and a Research Fellow to the Chair for Social Change, University of
Johannesburg<br />
► <em>The Role of Advocates in Developing International Law</em> by <a href="http://www.globalrightscompliance.com/en/members/wayne-jordash-qc">Wayne
Jordash</a> QC, international human rights and humanitarian lawyer and founding
partner of Global Rights Compliance<br />
► <em>Bill the Blogger</em> by <a href="http://www.law.uga.edu/profile/diane-marie-amann">Diane Marie Amann</a>,
Emily and Ernest Woodruff Chair in International Law and Faculty Co-Director of
the Dean Rusk International Law Center at the University of Georgia School of
Law<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<i><br /></i>Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-71688669514857435422017-12-11T14:21:00.002+00:002017-12-11T14:21:43.919+00:00Optimism about "Arcs of Global Justice" at London launch of our OUP essay collection honouring William A. Schabas<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><i>Professor</i></span><i> Diane Marie Amann provided this guest post, which is <a href="https://dianemarieamann.com/2017/12/10/optimism-about-arcs-of-global-justice-at-london-launch-of-our-oup-essay-collection-honouring-william-a-schabas/">cross-posted</a> from her </i><i>blog</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span lang="EN-US">LONDON – "Optimism" was the byword for Friday's
magical conference launching <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arcs-of-global-justice-9780190272654?cc=gb&lang=en&"><em>Arcs
of Global Justice: Essays in Honour of William A. Schabas</em></a>, the
just-published <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arcs-of-global-justice-9780190272654?cc=gb&lang=en&">Oxford
University Press</a> collection coedited by <a href="https://www.law.temple.edu/contact/margaret-m-deguzman/">Margaret M.
deGuzman</a> and <a href="http://www.law.uga.edu/profile/diane-marie-amann">myself</a>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-EoGKk0sMUCU/Wi6TxTQ56DI/AAAAAAAAA18/p8mnygXbf3koVCMJpnMY6Vudyw3bOjgWwCLcBGAs/s1600/farrell.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="539" data-original-width="887" height="242" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-EoGKk0sMUCU/Wi6TxTQ56DI/AAAAAAAAA18/p8mnygXbf3koVCMJpnMY6Vudyw3bOjgWwCLcBGAs/s400/farrell.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<span lang="EN-US">The event took place in a Christmas-tree-lighted conference
room at <a href="https://www.9bedfordrow.co.uk/">9 Bedford Row</a>, the London
chambers where our honouree, <a href="https://www.mdx.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-directory/profile/schabas-william">Bill
Schabas</a> (above center), is a door tenant. Joining Bill and his wife,
Penelope Soteriou, were several of the 35 women and men whose 29 contributions
comprise the volume, many friends, colleagues, PhD students, and relatives.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ugwIZUaw1Wc/Wi6T4Ue11VI/AAAAAAAAA2A/s-xbXsxh2HUxGCPI-totHhCxmznhJzOmACLcBGAs/s1600/higgins.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="615" data-original-width="530" height="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ugwIZUaw1Wc/Wi6T4Ue11VI/AAAAAAAAA2A/s-xbXsxh2HUxGCPI-totHhCxmznhJzOmACLcBGAs/s320/higgins.jpg" width="275" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://www.9bedfordrow.co.uk/our-team/barristers/gillian-higgins/">Gillian
Higgins</a> (left), Head of the International Practice Group at 9 Bedford Row,
opened with a warm message of welcome and congratulations. Then followed a
celebration that combined lighthearted anecdotes with serious presentations of
scholarship. Topics ranged as far and wide as Schabas' multifaceted career,
which includes current appointments as Professor of International Law at <a href="https://www.mdx.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-directory/profile/schabas-william">Middlesex
University</a>, London, Professor of International Criminal Law and Human
Rights at <a href="https://www.mdx.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-directory/profile/schabas-william">Leiden
University</a>, and Emeritus Professor of Human Rights Law and Honorary
Chairman of the <a href="http://www.nuigalway.ie/human_rights/">Irish Centre
for Human Rights</a>, National University of Ireland Galway; service as a
member of the <a href="http://www.sierraleonetrc.org/">Sierra Leone Truth and
Reconciliation Commission</a> and as a consultant on capital punishment for the
<a href="https://www.unodc.org/">United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime</a>;
and authorship of hundreds of books, chapters, and articles.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-00l5ywVKZZQ/Wi6UGRcrv3I/AAAAAAAAA2E/Gz_wDEaQVf09FX4KCNSJjGFHFbQ7pWXiwCLcBGAs/s1600/img_0252.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="300" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-00l5ywVKZZQ/Wi6UGRcrv3I/AAAAAAAAA2E/Gz_wDEaQVf09FX4KCNSJjGFHFbQ7pWXiwCLcBGAs/s400/img_0252.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<span lang="EN-US">A sobering moment came in Birkbeck Lecturer <a href="http://www.bbk.ac.uk/culture/staff/teaching-staff/emma-sandon">Emma
Sandon</a>'s discussion of Schabas' role as an organizer of and speaker at
human rights film festivals. Sandon (above) concluded with a clip from <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0055031/"><em>Judgment at Nuremberg</em></a>
(1961). All fell silent while watching the characters in the video courtroom
watch actual footage from the Allied liberations of concentration camps like
Buchenwald.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">Also moving was the memorial that Northwestern University
Law Professor <a href="http://www.law.northwestern.edu/faculty/profiles/DavidScheffer/">David
Scheffer</a> gave on behalf of contributor <a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/obituaries/ct-cherif-bassiouni-dies-met-20170926-story.html">Cherif
Bassiouni</a>, who died at age 79 in September, not long after finishing his
chapter, entitled "Human Rights and International Criminal Justice in the
Twenty-First Century: The End of the Post-WWII Phase and the Beginning of an
Uncertain New Era." (Bassiouni also penned a dedication for our conference
programme, available in PDF <a href="https://www.dropbox.com/s/s5t3p4yescydyi7/SchabasLaunchProg8dec17.pdf?dl=0">here</a>.)
Scheffer described the essay in light of his own and Schabas' writings, and
concluded on a optimistic note regarding the future of human rights.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-fDGLnGLe8pQ/Wi6UPXFvGFI/AAAAAAAAA2I/8LQmFkwApoU0zSyaBnpGF7UCymzOP4URACLcBGAs/s1600/img_0249.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="240" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-fDGLnGLe8pQ/Wi6UPXFvGFI/AAAAAAAAA2I/8LQmFkwApoU0zSyaBnpGF7UCymzOP4URACLcBGAs/s320/img_0249.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<span lang="EN-US">That same note sounded in
Schabas' own interventions throughout the day. On issues ranging from the
International Criminal Court to abolition of the death penalty, he assured his
audience that even in these times, when the day-to-day "weather" may
seem grim, the overall "climate" offers much room for optimism.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US">Here's the order of the day (full PDF programme <a href="https://www.dropbox.com/s/s5t3p4yescydyi7/SchabasLaunchProg8dec17.pdf?dl=0">here</a>;
additional contributors in attendance included Middlesex Law Dean <a href="https://www.mdx.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-directory/profile/castellino-joshua">Joshua
Castellino</a> and Cambridge PhD candidate <a href="https://www.law.cam.ac.uk/people/research-students/bruno-gelinas-faucher/5828">Bruno
Gélinas-Gaucher</a>):<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Arcs of Global Justice:</span></strong></div>
<span lang="EN-US"><div style="text-align: center;">
<strong>Conference Launching Essay Collection in Honour of William A. Schabas</strong></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
Friday, 8 December 2017, 9 Bedford Row, London</div>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Opening</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
"Welcome" by <a href="https://www.9bedfordrow.co.uk/our-team/barristers/gillian-higgins/">Gillian
Higgins</a>, Head of the International Practice Group at 9 Bedford Row<br />
"In Memoriam for Cherif Bassiouni" by <a href="http://www.law.northwestern.edu/faculty/profiles/DavidScheffer/">David
Scheffer</a>, Mayer Brown/Robert A. Helman Professor of Law and Director of the
Center for International Human Rights at Northwestern University Pritzker
School of Law, Chicago<br />
"Introduction to <em>Arcs of Global Justice</em>" by coeditors <a href="http://www.law.uga.edu/profile/diane-marie-amann">Diane Marie Amann </a>and
<a href="https://www.law.temple.edu/contact/margaret-m-deguzman/">Margaret M.
deGuzman</a><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">International Law & Criminal Justice</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
"The Principle of Legality at the Crossroads of Human Rights &
International Criminal Law" by <a href="http://www.nuigalway.ie/our-research/people/law/shanedarcy/">Shane Darcy</a>,
Senior Lecturer at the Irish Centre for Human Rights, National University of
Ireland Galway<br />
"Criminal Law Philosophy in William Schabas’s Scholarship" by <a href="https://www.law.temple.edu/contact/margaret-m-deguzman/">Margaret M.
deGuzman</a>, Professor of Law at Temple University’s Beasley School of Law<br />
"Perspectives on Cultural Genocide: From Criminal Law to Cultural
Diversity" by <a href="https://www.uel.ac.uk/staff/g/jeremie-gilbert">Jérémie
Gilbert</a>, Professor of International and Comparative Law, University of East
London<br />
"Toward Greater Synergy between Courts & Truth Commissions in
Post-Conflict Context: Lessons from Sierra Leone" by <a href="https://law.fiu.edu/faculty/directory/charles-c-jalloh/">Charles Chernor
Jalloh</a>, Professor of Law, Florida International University, and a member of
the International Law Commission<br />
Moderator: <a href="http://www.nuigalway.ie/research/human_rights/Staff/kathleen_cavanagh.html">Kathleen
Cavanaugh</a>, Senior Lecturer at the Irish Centre for Human Rights, National University
of Ireland Galway<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Justice / Scholarship / Culture / Practice</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
"Bill the Blogger" by <a href="http://www.law.uga.edu/profile/diane-marie-amann">Diane Marie Amann</a>,
Emily and Ernest Woodruff Chair in International Law and Faculty Co-Director of
the Dean Rusk International Law Center at the University of Georgia School of
Law<br />
"Advocates, Scholars & Maintaining the International Criminal Law
Momentum" by <a href="http://www.globalrightscompliance.com/en/members/wayne-jordash-qc">Wayne
Jordash</a> QC, international human rights and humanitarian lawyer and founding
partner of Global Rights Compliance<br />
"Law & Film: Curating Rights Cinema" by <a href="http://www.bbk.ac.uk/culture/staff/teaching-staff/emma-sandon">Emma
Sandon</a>, Senior Lecturer in Film and Television at Birkbeck, University of
London, and a Research Fellow to the Chair for Social Change, University of
Johannesburg<br />
Moderator: <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/law/staff/michelle-farrell/">Michelle
Farrell</a>, Senior Lecturer in Law in the School of Law and Social Justice,
University of Liverpool<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Abolition of the Death Penalty</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
"International Law & the Death Penalty: A Toothless Tiger, or a
Meaningful Force for Change?" by <a href="http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/faculty/bio_sandra_babcock.cfm">Sandra
L. Babcock</a>, Clinical Professor of Law at Cornell Law School and Faculty
Director of the Cornell Center on the Death Penalty Worldwide<br />
The Right to Life & the Progressive Abolition of the Death Penalty by <a href="https://www.cghr.polis.cam.ac.uk/about/people/thomas-probert">Thomas
Probert</a>, Research Associate, Centre of Governance & Human Rights,
University of Cambridge (on behalf of himself & co-authors Christof Heyns
& Tess Borden)<br />
Moderator: <a href="http://www.bcu.ac.uk/law/about-us/meet-our-staff/jon-yorke">Jon
Yorke</a>, Professor of Human Rights and Director of the Centre for Human
Rights at Birmingham City School of Law<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Closing</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><br />
Introduction by <a href="https://uk.linkedin.com/in/john-louth-1619526">John
Louth</a>, Editor-in-Chief of Academic Law at Oxford University Press<br />
Remarks by <a href="https://www.mdx.ac.uk/about-us/our-people/staff-directory/profile/schabas-william">William
A. Schabas</a> OC MRIA<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<strong><span lang="EN-US">Reception</span></strong><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US">With thanks to our host, <a href="https://www.9bedfordrow.co.uk/">9 Bedford Row</a>, & cosponsor, <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arcs-of-global-justice-9780190272654?cc=gb&lang=en&">Oxford
University Press</a><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">◊ ◊ ◊<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US">Arcs of Justice: Essays in Honour of William A. Schabas<em> (Margaret M.
deGuzman and Diane Marie Amann, eds.) (OUP 2018) may be ordered
via </em><a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/arcs-of-global-justice-9780190272654?cc=gb&lang=en&"><i>OUP</i></a><em>
or </em><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Arcs-Global-Justice-William-Schabas/dp/0190272651/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1512856157&sr=8-2&keywords=diane+amann"><i>Amazon</i></a><em>,
and the book's also available on </em><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Arcs-Global-Justice-William-Schabas-ebook/dp/B0784YPBN5/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1512856157&sr=8-1&keywords=diane+amann"><i>Kindle</i></a><em>.<o:p></o:p></em></span><br />
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<br />Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-16785516748710037742017-05-04T17:49:00.004+01:002017-05-04T17:49:49.520+01:00Call for Book Proposals: International Law series<div class="MsoHeader" style="color: #011e3c; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">
<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">INTERNATIONAL LAW<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Call for Proposals<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">The University of Wales Press has launched a new series, <b>International Law. </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">The series aim is to capture dynamic and cutting-edge research in international law, with a strong focus on legal theory in international law. Proposals are welcome from any broadly defined sub-field of international law</span></span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">This series will give internationally-based emerging scholars and published authors the opportunity to disseminate their research with a publisher which has strong links with international markets through its global distribution and marketing network.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">International Law</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;"> is currently soliciting proposals for monographs and edited volumes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">SERIES EDITORS:<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Professor Diane Marie Amann</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">, Associate Dean for International Programs & Strategic Initiatives and Emily & Ernest Woodruff Chair in International Law, University of Georgia School of Law; and <b>Dr Yvonne McDermott</b>, Senior Lecturer in Law, Bangor University.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">EDITORIAL BOARD:<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Professor Simon Chesterman</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">, Dean, Faculty of Law, National </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">University of Singapore;</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Professor Fiona de Londras,</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;"> Chair in Global Legal Studies, Birmingham Law School, University of Birmingham;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Professor Fionnuala Ní Aoláin</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">, Robina Chair in Law, Public Policy and Society, University of Minnesota Law School and Professor of Law, Transitional Justice Institute, University of Ulster;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Professor Volker Roeben</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">, Professor of International Law, Swansea University;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Professor Carsten Stahn</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">, Professor of International Criminal Law and Global Justice and Programme Director of the Grotius Centre for International Studies, Leiden University;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><b>Professor Ryszard Piotrowicz, </b>Professor of Law, Aberystwyth University. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">To discuss ideas for contributing to this exciting new series, please contact the Series Editors, or Sarah Lewis, Head of Commissioning at the University of Wales Press:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Professor Diane Marie Amann</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">:<b> </b>amann@uga.edu</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Dr Yvonne McDermott</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">: y.mcdermott@bangor.ac.uk </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;">Sarah Lewis:</span></b><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11pt;"> s.lewis@wales.ac.uk</span></div>
Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-32967113124312866482017-04-23T13:31:00.002+01:002017-04-23T13:31:36.377+01:00Summer schools: Galway and Newcastle<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Readers may be interested in the following Summer Schools:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Contemporary Challenges to International Criminal Justice Summer Academy Northumbria University, Newcastle 12-16 June 2017</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Northumbria Law School is pleased to announce its 1st Summer Academy on Contemporary Challenges to International Criminal Justice (Law & Criminology) will take place in Northumbria University, Newcastle from 12-16 June 2017.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This novel summer academy provides a unique opportunity for participants to acquire in-depth knowledge on the most pressing issues facing the international criminal justice system from the leading scholars and practitioners in the field. Speakers will share their expertise and experience on a varied range of topics to encourage and inspire postgraduate research in law and criminology.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> The themes of the summer academy are:</span><br />
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<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Challenges to international criminal justice and the future of the International Criminal Court</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Challenges to international cooperation in fighting transnational and international crimes</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Challenges in prosecuting terrorism and religiously motivated violence</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Challenges in ensuring effective redress for victims in post-conflict situations</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ecocide as a challenge to justice and security</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rule of law reform in post conflict countries</span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The distinguished speakers are: </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b>Professor William Schabas</b> (Middlesex University/Leiden University) - <b>Judge Howard Morrison </b>(International Criminal Court) - <b>Judge Professor Wolfgang Schomburg </b>(International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 2001-2008, Durham University) - <b>Judge David Baragwanath </b>(Special Tribunal for Lebanon) - <b>Judge Professor Philip Weiner </b>(Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia) - <b> Professor Roger S. Clark </b>(Rutgers Law School) - Professor Chrisje Brants (Northumbria University) - <b>Professor Liz Campbell</b> (Durham University) - <b>Mr Karim A.A. Khan, QC</b> (Temple Garden Chambers, International Defence and Victims Counsel & former Prosecutor) - <b>Dr. Mohamed Elewa Badar </b>(Northumbria University) - <b>Dr. Rod Rastan </b>(Legal Adviser, Office of the Prosecutor, International Criminal Court) - <b>Professor Tim Wilson </b>(Northumbria University) - <b>Professor Roger Clark </b>(Rutgers Law School) - <b>Dr. Mohamed El Zeidy</b> (Legal Officer, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court) - <b>Dr. Tanya Wyatt </b>(Northumbria University)- <b>Dr. Noelle Higgins</b> (Maynooth University) - <b>Professor Michael Rowe</b> (Northumbria University) - <b>Mr. Patrick Schneider </b>(EU Office of the Special Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina) - <b>Dr. Michael Kearne</b>y (Sussex University) - <b>Mr. Krmanj Othman</b> (KRG High Committee for the Recognition of Genocide against Yezidi Kurds and other minorities) - <b>Dr. Patricia Hobbs </b>(Brunel University) - Dr. Hakeem Yusuf (University Birmingham) - <b>Dr. Elena Katseli </b>(Newcastle University) - <b>Dr. Jamie Harding</b> (Northumbria University) - <b>Dr. Ibrahim Shaw</b> (Northumbria University) - <b>Professor Nigel South</b> (University of Essex) - <b>Dr. Damien Short</b> (University of London) - <b>Dr. Mohamed 'Arafa</b> (Indiana University) -<b> Ms. Gemma Davies </b>(Northumbria University) - <b>Dr. David McGrogan </b>(Northumbria University).</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This event is a wonderful opportunity for international lawyers, legal interns, academics, and present and future postgraduate students to meet eminent scholars and practitioners in the field of international criminal justice as well as like-minded colleagues from all over the world. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Participants may register to attend individual sessions or the whole event. Please note that places are limited.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For further information and to register please visit our <a href="http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/news-events/events/2017/06/northumbria-university-summer-academy-in-contemporary-challenges-to-international-criminal-justice/">website</a> or <a href="mailto:amina.adanan@northumbria.ac.uk">email</a>.</span><br />
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<b><span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The International Criminal Court Summer School 2017</span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">19 to 23 June 2017, NUI Galway,
Ireland<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The annual International Criminal Court
Summer School at the Irish Centre for Human Rights is the premier summer school
specialising on the International Criminal Court. The summer school allows
participants the opportunity to attend a series of intensive lectures over five
days. The lectures are given by leading academics on the subject as well as by
legal professionals working at the International Criminal Court. The
interactive and stimulating course is particularly suited to postgraduate
students, legal professionals, scholars, and NGO workers. Participants are
provided with a detailed working knowledge of the establishment of the Court,
its structures and operations, and the applicable law. Lectures also speak to
related issues in international criminal law, including: genocide, war crimes,
crimes against humanity, the crime of aggression, jurisdiction, fair trial
rights, and the rules of procedure and evidence.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This year’s ICC Summer School will include
a topical special session on<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><strong>Corporate Crimes and the
International Criminal Court.<o:p></o:p></strong></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 22.5pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-IE">The list of speakers at the 2017 ICC Summer
School includes the following:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><strong>Professor William
Schabas</strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><b> </b></span>(Irish
Centre for Human Rights/Middlesex University);<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Professor James Stewart </b>(University of British Columbia)<span lang="EN-IE">;<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><strong>Dr. Fabricio Guariglia</strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(Office of the Prosecutor,
International Criminal Court);<span class="apple-converted-space"><b> </b></span><strong>Professor Megan A.
Fairlie</strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(Florida
International University);<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><strong> Professor Ray Murphy</strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><b> </b></span>(Irish Centre for Human
Rights);<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><strong>Dr. Rod Rastan</strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(Office of the Prosecutor at the
International Criminal Court);<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><strong>Dr. Mohamed M. El Zeidy</strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(International Criminal Court);<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><strong>Professor Donald M. Ferencz</strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(Middlesex University);<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-IE"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Dr.
Noelle Quenivet </span></b><span lang="EN-US">(University of the
West of England); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Dr. Nadia Bernaz</b>
(Middlesex University);</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-IE">Dr. James Nyawo </span></b><span lang="EN-IE">(INTERVICT,
Tilburg University); </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Dr. Nadia Bernaz</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> (Middlesex University);</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Mr.
Richard J. Rodgers</span></b><span lang="EN-US">
(Global Diligence LLP);</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IE"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Mr. John McManus </b>(Crimes
Against Humanity and War Crimes Section, Canadian Department of Justice); </span></span><strong><span lang="EN-IE">Dr. Noelle Higgins</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span lang="EN-IE"> </span></b></span><span lang="EN-IE">(Maynooth University);</span><span lang="EN-IE"> </span><strong><span lang="EN-IE">Dr.
Shane Darcy</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IE"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IE">(Irish Centre for Human Rights).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 22.5pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">registration
fee of €450</b> includes all conference materials, all lunches and
refreshments, a social activity and a closing dinner. The registration fee also
includes a complimentary copy of Professor William Schabas' book '<i>An</i> <i>Introduction
to the International Criminal Court</i>'. The closing date for registrations
is <b>1 June 2017</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 22.5pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-IE">To register and for more information
regarding the 2017 ICC Summer School, please visit our<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #05a7ab;"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-IE"><a href="http://www.conference.ie/Conferences/index.asp?Conference=497"><span style="color: #00b0f0; text-decoration: none;">website</span></a><a href="http://www.conference.ie/Conferences/index.asp?Conference=464,"><span style="color: #00b0f0; text-decoration: none;"> <span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE">and
follow us on<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IE"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/internationalcriminalcourtsummerschool/?fref=ts"><span style="color: #00b0f0; text-decoration: none;">Facebook</span></a></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-IE" style="color: #5e6464;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-IE">or<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #5e6464;"> </span></span></span><span lang="EN-IE"><a href="https://twitter.com/iccsummerschool"><span style="color: #00b0f0; text-decoration: none;">Twitter</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="color: #5e6464;">.</span><span lang="EN-IE"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-16272555599804604752017-01-05T09:14:00.000+00:002017-01-05T15:51:46.418+00:00ICC extends war crimes of rape and sexual slavery to victims from same armed forces<div style="text-align: justify;">
Trial Chamber VI of the ICC issued a very interesting <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2017_00011.PDF">decision</a> in the case of <i>Ntaganda </i>yesterday. At issue was the Defence's argument that the Court could not have jurisdiction over the crimes of rape and sexual slavery allegedly committed against UPC/FPLC child soldiers, because war crimes cannot be committed against combatants from the same armed forces as the perpetrator. Such crimes, the Defence argued, would come within the ambit of domestic law and human rights, and were not covered by the war crimes prohibition. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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The argument, on its face, is rather convincing - the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols explicitly protect certain categories of persons, principally sick, wounded and shipwrecked persons not taking part in hostilities, prisoners of war and other detainees, civilians and civilian objects. Ntaganda is charged with these crimes under Article 8(2)(e)(vi) of the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/nr/rdonlyres/ea9aeff7-5752-4f84-be94-0a655eb30e16/0/rome_statute_english.pdf">ICC Statute</a>, which defines the war crime as:</div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
Committing rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, as defined in article 7, paragraph 2 (f), enforced sterilization, and any other form of sexual violence also constituting a serious violation of article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions;</blockquote>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The <i>chapeau</i> of Article 8(2)(e) enumerates the crimes therein as being 'other serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in armed conflicts not of an international character, within the established framework of international law'. It stands to reason, then, that we would examine that established international law framework in seeking to determine whether fellow combatants from the same armed forces as the perpetrator are protected by that framework.</div>
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<a href="https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/WebART/375-590006">Common Article 3</a> refers explicitly to 'persons taking no active part in hostilities', while <a href="https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/WebART/475-760008?OpenDocument">Article 4</a> of Additional Protocol II (which contains the prohibition on outrages upon personal dignity, rape, enforced prostitution and any form of indecent assault) applies only to those 'persons who do not take a direct part or who have ceased to take part in hostilities, whether or not their liberty has been restricted'. </div>
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The most obvious way to resolve this issue would seem to be to acknowledge that Article 8(2)(c) and (e) crimes cannot be committed against those actively taking part in hostilities, but to argue that those victims identified in paragraphs 66-72 of the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2014_04750.PDF">Confirmation Decision</a> as having been abducted to act as domestic servants and, in the words of one witness, provide 'combined cooking and love services' were obviously not actively taking part in hostilities. </div>
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Yet, other victims mentioned in the Confirmation Decision acted as bodyguards, while other young girls abducted by the UPC/FPLC and later raped by soldiers in camps underwent military training, from which we can assume that they probably carried out some military functions. The issue here is that the <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/record.aspx?docNo=ICC-01/04-01/06-2842">Trial Chamber in </a><i><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/record.aspx?docNo=ICC-01/04-01/06-2842">Lubanga</a> </i>embraced a much broader definition of 'active participation in hostilities', in order to include a wide range of children who were forcibly recruited as victims under Article 8(2)(e)(vii). It determined, in paragraph 628, that:</div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
Those who participate actively in hostilities include a wide range of individuals, from those on the front line (who participate directly) through to the boys or girls who are involved in a myriad of roles that support the combatants.</blockquote>
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At the time of the <i>Lubanga </i>judgment, several authors noted that this expansive definition may have unintended negative consequences for the protection of children in armed conflict. For example, Nicole Urban <a href="http://www.ejiltalk.org/direct-and-active-participation-in-hostilities-the-unintended-consequences-of-the-iccs-decision-in-lubanga/">argued</a> that, 'Should the sexual exploitation of and violence against child soldiers render them ‘active’ participants in hostilities under one Article, there is a real risk that they will also be considered as active participants in hostilities under the others.' In a sense, the chickens have now come home to roost, as the Court in <i>Ntaganda </i>has to marry that interpretation, which seeks to protect child soldiers as victims of forcible recruitment, with an interpretation that includes them within the ambit of Article 8(2)(e) when they become victims of other war crimes.</div>
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The Pre-Trial Chamber took the position that individuals only lose their protection 'for such time' as they are actively participating in hostilities, and that those who were raped and subjected to sexual violence were clearly not participating in hostilities at that time. This interpretation is somewhat problematic, as it sidesteps the situation of those members of the armed groups who bear a '<a href="https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/icrc-002-0990.pdf">continuous combat function</a>'. </div>
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Trial Chamber VI in yesterday's decision took a rather different approach, by determining that:</div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="text-align: justify;">
While most of the express prohibitions of rape and sexual slavery under international humanitarian law appear in contexts protecting civilians and persons <i>hors de combat </i>in the power of a party to the conflict, the Chamber does not consider those explicit protections to exhaustively define, or indeed limit, the scope of the protection against such conduct. (para. 47)</blockquote>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
It went on to conclude that, because the prohibition of rape had attained <i>jus cogens </i>status under international law (para. 51), 'such conduct is prohibited at all times, both in times of peace and during armed conflicts, and against all persons, irrespective of any legal status', and that it did not, therefore, need to determine whether the victims were 'members' of the armed forces at the relevant time (paras. 52-53).</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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This decision neatly sidesteps the issues surrounding the notion of active participation in hostilities raised by the <i>Lubanga </i>judgment. Yet, the conclusion that members of the same armed force are not <i>per se</i> excluded as potential victims of war crimes is a very expansive interpretation of Article 8, and one that is not fully reasoned in the judgment. The decision appears to be founded on two separate aspects. </div>
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The first is that not all war crimes need to be committed against protected persons (para. 37). The Chamber referenced a number of sub-paragraphs of Article 8(2)(e) in this regard, namely Articles 8(2)(e)(ix) and (x) on perfidy and denying that no quarter will be given, in support of this argument. This is not entirely convincing, as Article 8(2)(e)(ix) explicitly refers to killing or wounding 'a combatant adversary' treacherously. Article 8(2)(e)(x), prohibiting a declaration that no quarter will be given, is explicitly prohibited <a href="https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule46">because it would result in the killing of persons <i>hors de combat</i></a>. </div>
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The second justification for the decision appears to be the widespread prohibition of rape and sexual violence under international humanitarian law. The Chamber considered that to limit the protection against rape to exclude members of the same armed group would be 'contrary to the rationale of international humanitarian law, which aims to mitigate the suffering resulting from armed conflict, without banning belligerents from using armed force against each other or undermining their ability to carry out effective military operations.' Given that there could be no military objective or justification to engage in sexual violence against any person, regardless of whether or not that person was a legitimate target under the law of armed conflict, the Chamber considered that the prohibition of sexual violence under IHL was not limited to certain categories of persons, and that anyone could be a victim of this war crime. This justification is more convincing, but leaves many questions unanswered, as it seems to be limited to the prohibition of rape (which the Chamber considered to be a <i>jus cogens </i>norm of international law). We might ask, for example, whether armed forces who commit acts of humiliating or degrading treatment against their own members, or who deny those members a fair trial, may now find that they are committing war crimes under Article 8 of the ICC Statute. </div>
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This decision is clearly founded in a desire to offer the greatest level of protection to victims of sexual violence in armed conflict, regardless of their status. A similar argument was made in the ICRC's updated <a href="https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Comment.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=59F6CDFA490736C1C1257F7D004BA0EC">commentary</a> to Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions, which stated that 'all Parties to the conflict should, as a minimum, grant humane treatment to their own armed forces based on Common Article 3.'<br />
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It will certainly be interesting to see what states' reactions to this expansive interpretation, and what the broader consequences of this decision, will be. </div>
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Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-6485464219057596592016-11-23T11:13:00.002+00:002016-11-23T11:13:50.259+00:00Calls for papers: ESIL, University of Windsor, UCL Postgraduate Conference<div class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB">ESIL Annual Conference, Naples, 7-9 September 2017: Call for Papers </span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The 13th Annual Conference of the European Society of International Law will take place in Naples, Italy, on 7-9 September 2017. The conference will be hosted by the University of Naples Federico II, the oldest public university in the world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The theme of the conference is ''Global Public Goods, Global Commons and Fundamental Values: The Responses of International Law''.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The Call for Papers is now open. Deadline for submission of abstracts: 31 January 2017.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><a href="http://www.esil-sedi.eu/node/1444" style="color: purple;">Further information</a> is available on ESIL website.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><b>TLJN Conference 2017 - Transnational Criminal Law in the Americas, 4-5 May 2017: Call for Papers</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">On May 4-5, 2017, the Transnational Law and Justice Network at the University of Windsor, Faculty of Law, invites academics, policy makers, NGOs, and individuals working on the ground to participate in a multidisciplinary regional dialogue about the most pressing transnational criminal law issues facing the Americas today.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Topics may include: the suppression treaty regime generally; legal responses to specific transnational crimes such as drug trafficking, human trafficking, migrant smuggling, money laundering, corruption, firearms trafficking, environmental crimes, and other transnational organized crime; institutions and accountability for transnational crime; and mutual legal assistance, cooperation and capacity building. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Questions to be addressed may include:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">• What are the most pressing transnational criminal law issues facing the Americas today and how are these issues evolving and shifting? </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">• Should greater emphasis be placed on regional responses to transnational criminal law and how should such regional responses be structured?</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">• What assumptions underlie the current legal regimes addressing transnational crime and do they adequately reflect the reality of transnational criminality today?</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">• How have globalization and technological advancements shifted the nature of transnational criminality and how should this inform the legal response?</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">• How do critical approaches to law inform questions of transnational criminal law?</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Those interested in presenting at the conference are invited to apply by email to tljnconference2017@uwindsor.ca no later than January 20, 2017. <a href="http://www.uwindsor.ca/law/932/tljn-conference-2017-transnational-criminal-law-americas-call-papers">Further information</a> can be found on the conference website.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><b>The Art of Balancing: The Role of Law in Reconciling Competing Interests</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">University College London Faculty of Laws is pleased to invite submissions for its 2017 Postgraduate and Early Careers Conference to be held on 30-31 March 2017, at University College London, London, UK.</span></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">The conference is designed to provide current doctoral students and recent PhD graduates with a forum to present and discuss their work among academic peers from different backgrounds and legal disciplines. The conference aims to promote fruitful research collaboration between its participants, and to encourage their integration in a community of legal scholars.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">The Conference theme is “The Role of Law in Reconciling Competing Interests”. Contemporary legal problems create the need to balance competing interests, values, rights, obligations, and freedoms. This Conference will explore the response of the law and legal actors to modern challenges, be it in the context of domestic law and national jurisdictions or in the framework of international law.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">The increasing criticism against the fragmentation of legal fields have brought about the need to reconcile public, individual, and international interests. Additionally, the growing focus on States’ obligations to respect and protect human rights and freedoms has too led to a shift in the manner States conduct themselves both in the domestic and international arenas. Yet, given the ever increasing extent of international regulation and concomitant demands on limited financial, technical and human resources, it is not at all clear how these competing rights and obligations ought to be balanced. Furthermore, the mounting pressure on the States to ensure the security of their population brings about the debate over States’ ability to limit other rights and freedoms on behalf of security interests, legitimate as may be.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">We welcome applications from current doctoral students, both in law and law-related disciplines, and from recent graduates of doctoral programs up to five years since the completion of their PhD. We encourage submissions engaging all disciplines of law. </span></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Selection will be based on the quality of the proposal, as well as its capacity to engage with other proposals in a collaborative dialogue.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Interested scholars should email an abstract of up to 750 words along with a short bio in no more than two paragraphs by25 December 2016 to the following address: PGC2017@ucl.ac.uk. </span></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px;">Abstracts should reflect papers that have not been published nor submitted elsewhere for consideration for publication. </span></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Successful applicants will be selected by an Organizing Committee and notified no later than 15 January 2017.</span></div>
Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-20154998361614127632016-08-27T15:29:00.000+01:002016-08-27T15:34:28.702+01:00Training materials on the investigation and documentation of sexual and gender-based violence<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.32px;">Last year, the organisation I worked for (the Institute for International Criminal Investigations in The Hague) was contracted by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office to develop a set of training materials based on their International Protocol on the Documentation and Investigation of Sexual Violence in Conflict. I'm glad to say that those training materials have finally been made available online. There are ten Powerpoint modules on relevant topics, along with guidance notes to indicate how the materials should be used, how to run the exercises and what specific expertise the trainers should have to be able to deliver the module successfully. Some of the modules are very specific to international criminal law, but some are more general and deal with issues like understanding and recognising sexual and gender-based violence, conducting interviews with vulnerable witnesses, planning investigation or documentation exercises and storing evidence safely. At the moment the materials are only available in English, but because they were designed to be used with the International Protocol they may be translated and made available in other languages at some point in the future. They are a very useful resource for anyone who is conducting trainings on this issue, and they would also be helpful to anyone researching the practicalities of how to improve standards of investigation and documentation in relation to sexual and gender-based crimes. The training materials are available here: </span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.32px;"><a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/international-protocol-on-the-documentation-and-investigation-of-sexual-violence-in-conflict-training-materials">https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/international-protocol-on-the-documentation-and-investigation-of-sexual-violence-in-conflict-training-materials</a>. </span></span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.32px;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.32px;">We have also produced specific guidelines on how to investigate or document sexual and gender-based violence committed against men and boys, which recognises some of the unique challenges and considerations of dealing with male victims of these types of crimes. Those guidelines are available here: </span><span style="font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.32px;"><a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/guidelines-for-investigating-conflict-related-sexual-and-gender-based-violence-against-men-and-boys">https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/guidelines-for-investigating-conflict-related-sexual-and-gender-based-violence-against-men-and-boys</a><span style="">. </span></span></span>Niamh Hayeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14322835032041703478noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-53462650766484343932016-04-13T22:53:00.000+01:002016-04-13T22:53:03.014+01:0011th Cinema, Human Rights and Advocacy summer school: Deadline 30 April<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-oBc9V3uMkRU/Vw6_T2Mr7LI/AAAAAAAAAlc/F-gEBfC7oRs2Va43SiYTXCFsDP5rVCE2QCLcB/s1600/CHRA.e-flyer.2016.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="312" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-oBc9V3uMkRU/Vw6_T2Mr7LI/AAAAAAAAAlc/F-gEBfC7oRs2Va43SiYTXCFsDP5rVCE2QCLcB/s400/CHRA.e-flyer.2016.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-59380911786153655642016-04-08T09:48:00.003+01:002016-04-08T21:01:11.405+01:00The Mistrial, An Innovation in International Criminal Law <style>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Earlier this week, the second Kenyan case at the
International Criminal Court came to an end with the granting of a motion by
the two accused claiming that there is <a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/situations%20and%20cases/situations/situation%20icc%200109/related%20cases/icc01090111/court%20records/chambers/tcVa/Pages/2027.aspx">‘no case to answer’</a>. This is a pretty
standard concept in adversarial proceedings. When the prosecution concludes its
evidence and confirms that it has nothing further to add in order to make
evidence of guilt, it becomes the turn of the defence to call evidence. But
first the defence may contend that the evidence of the prosecution is insufficient to
provide the basis for a conviction. If it succeeds, it is in principle entitled to an acquittal on the charges.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">In the Ruto and Sang decision, two of three judges
agree with the defence that the prosecution evidence is insufficient to
establish guilt. The decision is somewhat strange and perhaps even
unprecedented in international criminal law in that we have three separate
judgments by the three judges. Dissenting judge Carbuccia even claims ‘</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">that the decision of the majority of the
Chamber contains insufficient reasoning, since Judge Eboe-Osuji and Judge Fremr
have both given separate reason’. But that is clearly wrong because Judge Eboe-Osuji and Judge Fremr agree that there is no case to answer. Furthermore, Judge
Eboe-Osuji, in his judgment, says he accepts Judge Fremr’s review of the facts.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The real
novelty in this decision is the remedy. According to Judge Eboe-Osuji, it is a ‘mistrial’.
Judge Fremr doesn’t use the word ‘mistrial’, and he says ‘I do not consider the
impact to have been of such a level so as to render the trial null and void’. But
he agrees with Judge Eboe-Osuji that it is ‘appropriate to leave open the
opportunity to re-prosecute the accused, should any new evidence that was not
available to the Prosecution at the time of the present case, warrant such a
course of action’.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The
consequence, then, is that the two majority judges agree that the prosecutor
has been unable to produce enough evidence to convict but that she should be
given a second chance. I suspect that the Prosecutor is very relieved to send
the end of the Kenya nightmare and that this will be the last we hear of the
situation. Were there ever an attempt to prosecute Ruto and Sang again, they
would have strong arguments to challenge the legality of the determination by
the majority.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">This is the
first time that a ‘mistrial’ has been declared in international criminal law. It
is a term that is used in common law adversarial proceedings where juries are
present and where a trial is in effect aborted and the prosecution given the
chance to start anew. I am unaware of any examples of a mistrial outside the
context of a jury trial. Presumably if there were any, Judge Eboe-Osuji, who is
a meticulous and thorough researcher, as his many constructive and creative
opinions demonstrate, would have found them and cited them in his reasons.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The first problem
is that there is no notion of a ‘mistrial’ in the Rome Statute, the Rules of
Procedure and Evidence, the Regulations of the Court, and previous practice of
other international criminal tribunals. When prosecutors and defence counsel
have tried to argue that certain procedural mechanisms exist by virtue of
article 21, and in the absence of express provision in the Rome Statute, they
have met with rejection by the Appeals Chamber. Judge Eboe-Osuji’s contention
that this novel and hitherto unknown concept can be derived from article 64(2)
and the duty of a Trial Chamber to ensure a fair trial is not very convincing.
His case would be more compelling if he could find examples in national
practice for a ‘mistrial’ where the prosecution is unable to make out its case.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Suppose that
instead of making a ‘no case to answer’ motion, the defence had simply said it
had no evidence to call on its own behalf. In other words, the defence would
invite the Trial Chamber to issue a verdict based upon the prosecution’s
evidence without calling any of its own witnesses. The result would have to be
an acquittal. Why does this tactical decision by the defence put Ruto in a Sang
in a position that is inferior to the one that they would be in had their
counsel said they had no evidence to call?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Perhaps,
according to Judge Eboe-Osuji’s theory, the ‘mistrial’ would still be available
even at the verdict stage. But it seems extraordinary that a Trial Chamber
could decline to issue a verdict of guilty or not guilty and instead declare a ‘mistrial’,
thereby inviting the Prosecutor to try again. There is also a serious obstacle
to all of this in the Rome Statute itself. Article 20(1) states: ‘</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Except
as provided in this Statute, no person shall be tried before the Court with</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">respect to conduct which formed the
basis of crimes for which the person has been</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">convicted or acquitted by the Court.’</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Article 84 of the Rome Statute poses another obstacle. It allows a revision of a judgment of conviction in the event of new evidence being available. There is no similar procedure in the case of acquittal. Allowing the Prosecutor to get a second chance if new evidence comes available is not consistent with this provision and with the vision of the drafters of the Statute. Suppose, for example, that instead of evidence of interference with prosecution witnesses being available at the 'no case to answer' stage, as it is in Ruto in Sang, this only became available after an acquittal, would the Prosecutor be entitled to demand a new trial? This is simply not allowed by the Statute.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Judge Eboe-Osuji is quite right to be shocked at the evidence of interference with the
trial but his attempt to find an original remedy is troublesome. He is probably
right to see article 70 proceedings for offences against the administration of
justice to be an inadequate answer. But it cannot be ruled out that the ‘mistrial’
remedy may actually have the opposite effect. If a trial can be aborted in this
way because of interference with witnesses, is that not an invitation to those
who do not want justice to run its course? In this case, the defendant clearly
would prefer an acquittal to a second trial. But in many cases, the defendant
will prefer a second trial to the prospect of a conviction. Those who seek to
avoid a conviction have now been provided with a mechanism.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Perhaps at some point another Chamber or another court will have to interpret this judgment. It should be construed as holding that based upon all of the Prosecutor's evidence there is 'no case to answer' and that this is equivalent to an acquittal. That the majority judges attempt to reserve the right of the Prosecutor to start again is not provided for by the Rome Statute and is in fact forbidden by article 20(1). They have gone beyond their authority in so doing. Subject to an appeal by the Prosecutor, Ruto and Sang are 'not guilty'.</span></div>
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William A. Schabashttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17552332133145290879noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-20726385193877369432016-04-08T07:55:00.000+01:002016-04-08T07:55:04.773+01:00Fred Harhoff and the mystery of the Šešelj acquittal
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<br />
<span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
acquittal judgment of Vojislav </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Šešelj paints a
portrait of a man who might be described as ‘the Donald Trump of Serbia’. Some
readers of the blog may be frustrated to find only summaries of the judgment
and the dissent by Judge Lattanzi on the website of the International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. In fact, the<a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/seselj/tjug/fr/160331.pdf"> Judgment </a>can be found on the
French site of the Tribunal, along with the 500-page <a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/seselj/tjug/fr/160331_2.pdf">Opinion concordante ofJudge Antonetti</a>.</span></span>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">The trial itself
finished in mid-2012, some four years ago, but judgment was delayed when Judge
Fred Harhoff was recused in September 2013, only weeks before the Trial Chamber
was expected to issue its verdict. Judge Harhoff’s recusal resulted from a
motion filed by the defendant after Judge Harhoff’s infamous e-mail message to
Danish friends and colleagues that complained about a malaise at the Tribunal. The
President of the Chamber, Judge Antonetti, <a href="http://www.mediafire.com/download/ep937av16e19vz3/d%C3%A9cision+antonetti.pdf">objected to the recusal </a>of Judge
Harhoff.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rather than
abort the trial and start again, the Tribunal decided to appoint a new judge
who was to familiarize himself with the trial materials and then participate in
the verdict. On 31 March 2016, Judge Antonetti and the new judge voted to acquit while Judge
Lattanzi dissented.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">One puzzle in
the acquittal is the attitude of Judge Antonetti to the recusal of Judge
Harhoff, back in September 2013. We now know what could not have been known in 2013,
namely that Judge Antonetti favoured acquittal. Why
would he have fought to keep Judge Harhoff in the Chamber knowing that he would
vote with Judge Lattanzi to convict? After all, Judge Harhoff was recused because his impartiality was
challenged by the defendant. The <a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/seselj/tdec/en/130828.pdf">judgment of recusal </a>
states that Judge Harhoff had ‘a bias in favour of conviction’.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">Judge Liu
dissented on that decision. He said that the majority had failed to take into
account Judge Harhoff's experience as a Judge of the Tribunal and a professor
of law. He said ‘had the Majority considered these circumstances, it would have
found that Judge Harhoff's statements do not demonstrate an appearance of bias
towards conviction of accused before the Tribunal as to overcome the
presumption of impartiality’.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">With
hindsight, we can see that dissenting Judge Liu, who upheld the impartiality of
Judge Harhoff was correct. The two judges who voted to recuse Judge Harhoff
were wrong. So was the defendant, who made the mistake of filing his motion. By
the way, Vojislav </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Šešelj deserves some credit for eventually obtaining an
acquittal. He was ridiculed for defending himself. He didn’t even call
witnesses in his own defence, something that most experienced criminal lawyers
would denounce as a huge mistake. And he won an acquittal. But his challenge
aimed at recusing Judge Harhoff was a mistake.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">How do we know that Judge Harhoff would have voted to
acquit? Today, the Oslo-based TOAEP released a <a href="https://www.fichl.org/fileadmin/user_upload/160407_PBS_No._47__2016_.pdf">policy brief by Fred Harhoff </a>discussing
his recusal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span> Professor Harhoff
explains that he waited until the verdict before making this public statement.
In it, he writes:</span>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">However, I did
not even mention Šešelj’s name or make any reference to his person or his trial
in my letter because my concern was not about Šešelj or other politicians, but
about <i>generals </i>and the military establishments’ possible interest in
rais- ing the legal requirements for the conviction of generals. The Panel did
raise this issue in its Decision by referring to the fact that Šešelj was
charged, <i>inter alia</i>, with hav- ing “directed paramilitary forces”, but
his role was not comparable to the authority of a regular military com- mander
during combat. He was a politician who occasionally visited his paramilitary
volunteers at the front- line to boost their morale, but to the best of my
knowledge, he never engaged in tactical manoeuvres or combat con- trol on the
battle eld. My letter had nothing to do with Šešelj, nor was it particularly
concerned with <i>Serbs </i>as such (as claimed by Šešelj in his Motion).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">…</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">I waited until
after the rendering of the Šešelj Trial Judgment on 31 March 2016 to publish
these thoughts. A pos- sible appeal may still reverse the Trial Chamber’s
acquit- tal. I regret the Decision to disqualify me from the Šešelj trial, not
only because I still believe that the Decision – for the reasons I have
explained above – was ill-founded, but also because my disquali cation and
replacement by an- other Judge caused a further and substantial delay of the
trial against the accused who had already been held in custody in The Hague for
more than ten years. Indeed, the Bench on which I sat in the Šešelj case was
just a couple of months away from rendering its judgment. The episode remains a
mystery to me. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">Professor
Harhoff does not quite go so far as to say he was planning to vote to acquit, although
that seems obvious enough from his comments made public today.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">But maybe it
is not such a mystery. We now understand better why Judge Antonetti was
opposed to his recusal in the report that he sent President Meron in early
September 2013. The only 'mystery' is the misjudgment by the other judges and those who supported the recusal of Judge Harhoff, including the defendant.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">This episode provides a rare opportunity to assess how wrong </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">conclusions about bias may be sometimes. Isolated statements and comments, taken out of context, can indeed raise concerns and lead to negative perceptions. The test is what the 'reasonable person' would apprehend. The saga of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">Šešelj and Harhoff should inform our 'reasonability' in such circumstances.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fred Harhoff
was and always has been a fair-minded professional who would neither convict or
acquit an accused for improper reasons or out of bias. This wasn’t obvious
enough to the judges who voted to remove him. Nor did the defendant understand
this. If he had, he would have been a free man two and a half years ago.</span>
</div>
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William A. Schabashttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17552332133145290879noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-86753218876404720922016-04-06T15:00:00.004+01:002016-04-06T15:00:52.769+01:00The death penalty: Is the glass half full or half empty?
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Amnesty International today issued its 2016 report on
capital punishment. The thorough annual reports by Amnesty International have
been produced for many years. They enable comparisons to be made and trends to
be identified.</div>
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The ‘headline’ on Amnesty’s website is ‘<a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/">Dramatic Rise In Executions</a>’. It is a gloomy and discouraging message. I expect this story will run in the media around the world. </div>
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This may be a case of debating whether a glass is half empty
or half full. As the report indicates, the dramatic increase is due to three
countries: Iran, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. In 2014, the three accounted for
386 executions. In 2015, they were responsible for 1,451 executions. It is a
huge and terrifying increase. As Amnesty recognizes, these three states
generate 89% of the total executions on the planet (with the exception of
China, which Amnesty does not include in its statistics because nothing
official is available).</div>
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But there is another much more hopeful message in the
Amnesty data.</div>
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If the very peculiar and grotesque cases of Iran, Pakistan and Saudi
Arabia are excluded from the total, we actually see a rather stunning decline
in the death penalty throughout the world. I looked at Amnesty’s reports over
the past six years, calculating the total number of executions but without counting Iran,
Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. Here is the result</div>
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2010<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>248</div>
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2011<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>234</div>
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2012<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>288</div>
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2013<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>330</div>
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2014<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>223</div>
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<br /></div>
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2015<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>179</div>
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<br /></div>
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In other words, excluding those three very nasty countries,
the number of executions in the world has never been lower. The decline in 2015
is nothing if not dramatic. If we look at the average for the previous five
years, it is 264 executions per annum. The total of 179 for 2015 represents a drop
of more than 30% compared with the average for the previous five years. Wow!</div>
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<br /></div>
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Some of this might be explained by the shrinking subject matter. In effect, there are fewer countries that apply the death penalty today than there were in 2010. But the difference is not that great. In 2010, Amnesty said that 95 states had abolished the death penalty in law., and that 139 had abolished it in either law or in practice. This year, the total is 102 for those that have abolished it in law, and 140 for those that have abolished it in law or in practice. That might explain a slight reduction, but not a 30% drop. The conclusion must be that most of the States that retain the death penalty actually use it significantly less than they did at the beginning of the decade.</div>
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China is excluded, of course. Since 2010, Amnesty has
not even attempted to guess at the number of executions in China. It is
probably several thousand per annum. Our information on China is entirely
anecdotal, but it seems consistent with the general trend rather than with that of the three anomalous countries. There can be little doubt that China has greatly
reduced its resort to capital punishment in recent years.</div>
William A. Schabashttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17552332133145290879noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-46771753712763928242016-03-27T22:04:00.002+01:002016-03-27T22:04:58.917+01:00ICC Summer School in Galway<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
Irish Centre for Human Rights at the National University of Ireland Galway is
pleased to announce that the annual International Criminal Court Summer School
will take place from 27 June – 1 July. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The International
Criminal Court Summer School 2016</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">27 June – 1 July
2016, NUI Galway, Ireland</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
annual International Criminal Court Summer School at the Irish Centre for Human
Rights is the premier summer school specialising on the International Criminal
Court. The summer school allows participants the opportunity to attend a series
of intensive lectures over five days. The lectures are given by leading
academics on the subject as well as by legal professionals working at the
International Criminal Court. The interactive and stimulating course is particularly
suited to postgraduate students, legal professionals, scholars, and NGO workers.
Participants are provided with a detailed working knowledge of the
establishment of the Court, its structures and operations, and the applicable
law. Lectures also speak to related issues in international criminal law,
including: genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, the crime of
aggression, jurisdiction, fair trial rights, and the rules of procedure and
evidence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">This
year’s ICC Summer School will include a special session on <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">victims at the International Criminal Court.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
list of speakers at the 2016 ICC Summer School includes the following:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Professor William Schabas </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">(Irish Centre for
Human Rights/Middlesex University); <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Professor Anne-Marie de Brouwer </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">(Tilburg
University); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Dr Fabricio Guariglia</b> (Office
of the Prosecutor, International Criminal Court);<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> Professor Megan A. Fairlie</b> (Florida International University); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Paolina Massida </b>(Office of the Public
Counsel for Victims, International Criminal Court); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Professor Ray Murphy </b>(Irish Centre for Human Rights); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Dr Rod Rastan</b> (Office of the Prosecutor
at the International Criminal Court); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Dr
Mohamed M. El Zeidy</b> (International Criminal Court); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Professor Donald M. Ferencz</b> (Middlesex University); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Dr Nadia Bernaz</b> (Middlesex University);
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fiona McKay </b>(former head of Victims
Participation and Reparations Section of the International Criminal Court) </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Dr Kwadwo Appiagyei Atua </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">(University of Ghana and University of Lincoln); </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Dr Noelle Higgins </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">(Maynooth
University); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Dr Shane Darcy</b> (Irish
Centre for Human Rights).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">An
early bird registration fee of €400 is available for delegates who register
before 15 April 2016, with the fee for registrations after that date being
€450. The registration fee includes all course materials, all lunches and
refreshments, a social activity and a closing dinner. A limited number of
scholarships are also available. Please see the General Information section of
our website for further information. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">To register and for more information regarding the
2016 ICC Summer School, please visit our website at </span><a href="http://www.conference.ie/Conferences/index.asp?Conference=464"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">http://www.conference.ie/Conferences/index.asp?Conference=464</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">, and
follow us on </span><a href="https://www.facebook.com/internationalcriminalcourtsummerschool/?fref=ts"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Facebook</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> or </span><a href="https://twitter.com/iccsummerschool"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Twitter</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Should
you have any queries, please email: </span><a href="mailto:iccsummerschool@gmail.com"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4f004d; font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">iccsummerschool@gmail.com</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-55376685733277491812016-03-25T09:35:00.000+00:002016-03-25T09:35:00.899+00:00The Yugoslavia Tribunal also Engages in Debt Collection
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Alongside yesterday’s very important judgment of the
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was a rather more
pathetic manifestation of the fight against impunity. While the judgment was
being issued, Security officials of the Tribunal, with the apparent assistance
of the Dutch police, arrested French journalist Florence Hartmann. She is now
in detention at the Tribunal’s prison. For a photo of her arrest, look <a href="http://information.tv5monde.com/en-continu/l-ancienne-porte-parole-du-tpiy-florence-hartmann-arretee-pour-outrage-98054">here</a>.</div>
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Florence Hartmann served as press officer at the Tribunal
about a decade ago, When she left, she published a memoir entitled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Paix et ch</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR;">âtiment. </span></i>The book
referred to decisions of the Tribunal’s Appeals Chamber that were supposed to
have remained confidential. After being tried and convicted of contempt of
court, she was sentenced to pay a <span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">€7,000 fine. When she failed to pay the fine, the Tribunal converted the
sentence into one of seven days’ imprisonment. She now has six more days to go, that is, unless the Tribunal applies its policy of early release after service of two-thirds of the sentence.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
All of the international tribunals have wasted a lot of
resources on prosecuting so-called ‘offences against the administration of
justice’. The time and money these matters have consumed could have been
usefully devoted to more serious cases involving genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It doesn't have to be this way. In the early 1990s, the International
Law Commission conceived of an international court that would not concern
itself with issues like contempt of court, perjury and tampering with witnesses, leaving thus to the national courts. If Florence
Hartmann, or the others, really committed an offence against the administration
of justice, it would make a lot more sense for them to be dealt with by domestic justice systems.</div>
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If this were the case, by the way, the door would be wide open
to the European Court of Human Rights. It could address the human rights issues
that arise including arbitrary detention, imprisonment for debt, and freedom of
expression. But the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
lives in a little glass bubble where it is immune from supervision by the
European Court of Human Rights.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Florence Hartmann’s arrest did not, apparently, take place
on the territory of the Tribunal, but well outside its gates. Can it really be
the case that United Nations security guards have the legal authority to arrest
individuals on Dutch territory outside the premises of the Tribunal?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Security Council resolution establishing the Tribunal
gives it jurisdiction over ‘serious violations of international humanitarian
law’. Publishing a book in France does not fit within this concept. That may
explain why France has refused requests from the Tribunal to arrest Florence
Hartman for non-payment of the <span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">€7,000
fine.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Nobody
should be put in prison for failure to pay a fine. This amounts to arbitrary detention.
If the offence merits a jail sentence, then impose one from the beginning. But if it only justifies a fine of a relatively modest amount, it should not then be converted into jail time for non-payment, If the Tribunal wants to collect the money, let it file a civil claim before a
national court and attempt to seize the money from the bank account of its
debtor. That’s what the rest of us have to do when we are owed money.</span></div>
William A. Schabashttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17552332133145290879noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-88578910028914306312016-03-24T10:12:00.000+00:002016-03-24T10:12:12.707+00:00Did Karadžić get a fair trial?<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
Today,
the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) will issue
its judgment in the case of one of its most high-profile defendants, former
Republika Srpska President <a href="http://www.icty.org/case/karadzic/">Radovan
Karadžić</a>. When the ICTY was established, the Secretary-General of the
United Nations <a href="http://www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Statute/statute_re808_1993_en.pdf">noted</a>
that it was ‘axiomatic’ that those tried by the international tribunal would be
tried in accordance with the highest international fair trial standards. The
Karadžić case highlights just how challenging it is for the ICTY (and other international
criminal tribunals like it) to ensure a fair trial in practice. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
One
of the issues that has blighted the Karadžić trial throughout its lifetime has
been the non-disclosure by the prosecution of exculpatory materials by the
Prosecution. Under Rule 68 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, the
Prosecution is bound to disclose to the Defence any material in its possession that
may suggest the innocence of the accused, affect the credibility of Prosecution
evidence, or mitigate the guilt of the accused. As recently as last week, pursuant
to Karadžić’s 107<sup>th</sup> disclosure violation motion, the Trial Chamber <a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/karadzic/tdec/en/160314.pdf">found</a> that
the Prosecution had failed to disclose relevant evidence, but (as with its many
previous findings of disclosure violations), found that no prejudice had been
suffered by the accused and therefore declined to grant any remedies for this
breach. Just yesterday, on the eve of the judgment, Karadžić’s legal advisor,
Peter Robinson, <a href="https://twitter.com/PeterRobinICTY">reported</a> that
the defence had just received over 200 further pages of exculpatory evidence
from the prosecution.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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In a
sense, the prosecution’s continued failure in fulfilling its disclosure
obligations is unsurprising, given the sheer volume of the case. Over the
course of the four-year trial, the testimony of 586 witnesses was received. Many
of these witness statements were admitted in written form, with limited or no
opportunity for cross-examination. Over 11,000 exhibits (totalling almost
150,000 pages) were received, and the transcript of the proceedings to date
exceeds 45,000 pages. The prosecution has disclosed over 2 million pages of
evidence. Moreover, the Tribunal has made extensive use of judicial notice of
adjudicated facts – including, as I note in <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/fairness-in-international-criminal-trials-9780198739814?cc=gb&lang=en&">my
book</a>, such important facts as that Serb forces removed non-Serbs from
certain areas, that these forces mistreated detainees in detention facilities,
and that attacks were carried out on certain regions. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
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Karadžić
has represented himself throughout the trial, assisted by a small team of
support staff. While the Tribunal did overturn some of the Registry’s more <a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/karadzic/presdec/en/100219.pdf">restrictive decisions</a>
on the funding of Karadžić’s defence team, and did grant him <a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/karadzic/presdec/en/120131.pdf">additional
time</a> to prepare for trial, the defence team’s David has faced a
prosecutorial Goliath. Most recently, the President of the Mechanism for the
International Criminal Tribunals <a href="http://www.unmict.org/sites/default/files/documents/151117_progress_report_en.pdf">notified</a>
the UN Security Council that a prosecution team had been established to prepare
for the anticipated appeal of Karadžić’s case. When Karadžić asked for funding
to resource an equivalent defence team, his motion was <a href="http://jrad.unmict.org/webdrawer/webdrawer.dll/webdrawer/rec/237408/view/KARADIZIC%20-%20DECISION%20ON%20MOTION%20FOR%20REVIEW%20OF%20DECISION%20ON%20ASSIGNMENT%20OF%20COUNSEL%20ON%20APPEAL.PDF">denied</a>
as ‘purely speculative’ as there was no guarantee that the judgment would be
appealed, despite the clear implications on the equality of arms before the Tribunal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Why should
it matter that such high-profile accused persons get a fair trial? Aside from
the fact that the Tribunals have already declared their procedures to reflect
the highest standards of fairness, and that any derogations from fair trial practices
may be utilised by domestic criminal justice systems as justification for their
own shortcomings, the impact of fairness on the legitimacy and legacy of the
Tribunals cannot be understated. Anything less than scrupulous protection of
the rights of the accused allow the Tribunals’ detractors to declare their
proceedings ‘show trials’, rigged against the defendants from the outset. With
the stakes so high, and the cost of international justice so enormous, nothing
less than the fairest of procedures will do. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-80917863267369682712016-03-21T18:32:00.000+00:002016-06-01T20:55:40.825+01:00The Bemba Trial Judgement – A Memorable Day for the Prosecution of Sexual Violence by the ICC<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><i>In this post, Niamh Hayes writes about the significance of the sexual violence aspects of the </i>Bemba <i>judgment. </i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For interested observers of the ICC’s efforts to investigate and
prosecute conflict-related sexual violence, there has been very little to cheer
about over the last 14 years. Despite the broad range of sexual and
gender-based crimes contained in the Rome Statute, Prosecutor Ocampo’s early
failures to pursue evidence-led investigations and tendency to develop the
theory of the prosecution case in the abstract led, unsurprisingly, to a </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2021249"><span lang="EN-IE">very weak record</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> on prosecutions for crimes of
sexual violence. When Fatou Bensouda took over as Prosecutor, the attrition
rate for charges of sexual violence at the ICC stood at over 50%, with fewer
than half of all such charges successfully confirmed for trial. Those figures
have improved under her tenure, particularly following the successful
confirmation of all sexual and gender-based charges in the Gbagbo and Ntaganda
confirmation decisions. She also spearheaded the development of the Office of
the Prosecutor’s </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/Policy_Paper_on_Sexual_and_Gender-Based_Crimes-20_June_2014-ENG.pdf"><span lang="EN-IE">Policy Paper on Sexual and
Gender-Based Crimes</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">, which made some important recommendations about pursuing alternative
modes of liability and selecting the most appropriate legal characterisation of
the charges based on the evidence. However, as of yesterday, the ICC had never
entered a conviction for crimes of sexual violence.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Today is a very good day for the Office of the Prosecutor. This
afternoon, Jean Pierre Bemba Gombo </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc2226759.pdf"><span lang="EN-IE">was convicted of rape as a crime against
humanity and a war crime</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">, due to his failure as a military commander to prevent or punish such
crimes committed by MLC troops under his effective control. This represents the
first ever conviction for the crime of rape at the International Criminal
Court. Although rape was charged in the cases against Germain Katanga and
Mathieu Ngudjolo, and although the Trial Chamber ultimately concluded that the
alleged acts of sexual violence had in fact taken place, Katanga and Ngudjolo’s
individual criminal responsibility for those crimes were not proven to the
satisfaction of the judges and they were both acquitted on those counts. Bemba
is not only the first defendant to be convicted of rape as a war crime or crime
against humanity at the ICC, he is also the first person to have been held individually
responsible for violations of international criminal law committed during the
2002-2003 coup in the Central African Republic.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Bemba’s conviction also represents another first, not only for the ICC
but for international criminal law in general. During the trial, the Chamber
heard from Witness 23, a male community leader who was raped in front of his
wife and children, and Witness 69, who was raped by two soldiers for protesting
the rape of his own wife. The </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1910909.pdf"><span lang="EN-IE">testimony</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1026337.pdf"><span lang="EN-IE">of</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/doc/doc1921665.pdf"><span lang="EN-IE">Witness 23</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> is powerful and heart-rending in its own
right, but is also striking for its obvious parallels to the experience and
testimony of female victims of sexual violence on issues such as psychological
trauma, social stigma, rejection by family members and access to appropriate
medical care to treat physical complications caused by the rape. Including this
testimony to support the charge of rape was an important step in the ICC’s
efforts to highlight and address all forms of sexual and gender-based crimes,
including the commission of sexual violence against men, a crime which is </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.warchild.org.uk/sites/default/files/Into-the-Mainstream.pdf"><span lang="EN-IE">habitually ignored even at the
international level</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">It is even more significant to realise that the Bemba judgement
represents the first time in the history of international criminal law that
sexual violence against men has been charged as the crime of rape (as opposed
to crimes of torture, outrages upon personal dignity or cruel treatment) or
that a defendant has been convicted of rape based on the testimony of male
victims. The Bemba case will go down in history as a vital precedent on that
basis alone, but it also represents a hugely important step in the ICC’s
broader efforts to provide greater accountability for sexual violence crimes.
Prosecutor Bensouda </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/press%20and%20media/press%20releases/Pages/otp-stat-bemba-21-03-2016.aspx"><span lang="EN-IE">today</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> reiterated her personal and
professional commitment to that goal: “[w]here some may want to draw a veil
over these crimes I, as Prosecutor, must and will continue to draw a line under
them.” The inclusion of further allegations of male rape in the Ntaganda case
and extensive allegations of sexual violence against civilians in the Ongwen
case are important and welcome developments in that regard.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">It is also worth highlighting the mode of liability in the Bemba case. Bemba
was not accused of ordering or directly perpetrating sexual violence himself;
he was accused of failing to prevent or punish crimes of sexual violence
committed by </span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mouvement de libération du
Congo</i><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> (MLC) troops under his control. The judges found that Bemba, as
President and commander-in-chief of the MLC, had the authority to exercise
effective control over MLC troops, that he had knowledge of crimes which had been
committed or were about to be committed by MLC soldiers, and that his failure
to take necessary and reasonable measures to prevent, repress or punish such
crimes directly contributed to their commission. In essence, Bemba was
convicted for what he failed to do and for what he allowed others to do, rather
than what he did himself.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This represents the first conviction for command responsibility under
Article 28 of the Rome Statute. The ICC has struggled with more immediate forms
of liability in other cases, particularly establishing responsibility for
direct and indirect co-perpetration under Article 25(3)(a) or proving that
sexual violence formed part of a common plan under Article 25(3)(d). Achieving
a conviction for command responsibility is based on proving the knowledge of
senior political and military leaders that crimes are being or may be
committed, their failure to exercise effective control over forces under their command,
and their failure to use their powers or authority to either prevent such
crimes or submit them to the relevant authorities for investigation and
prosecution.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Article 28 is therefore a powerful means of holding senior leaders
accountable for creating a “</span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/PIDS/publications/2016.03.21_Summary_of_the_Judgment-Eng.pdf"><span lang="EN-IE">climate of acquiescence</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">” where serious international crimes
can be committed with impunity. Bemba is the most senior military or political
leader to be tried or convicted by the ICC to date, and it is worth remembering
that he was </span><span lang="NL" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.ijmonitor.org/jean-pierre-bemba-gombo-background/"><span lang="EN-IE">arrested in Belgium in 2008</span></a></span><span lang="EN-IE" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> pursuant to a sealed warrant. While
it may not be possible to accurately measure the deterrent effect of
international prosecutions, it is comforting to think that, after today, senior
political and military figures who have responded dismissively or permissively
to allegations of sexual violence committed by troops under their command might
find themselves experiencing a sudden zeal to be seen to effectively exercise
their disciplinary powers, or at least a sudden rush of anxiety about their
next European shopping trip. They most certainly should not sleep as soundly as
they did last night. </span></div>
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<!--EndFragment-->Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-81049885991102687842016-03-15T23:21:00.001+00:002016-03-15T23:21:10.638+00:00Supreme Court of South Africa finds Government's failure to arrest Bashir was unlawful<div style="text-align: justify;">
The Supreme Court of Appeal in South Africa issued a <a href="http://www.justice.gov.za/sca/judgments/sca_2016/sca2016-017.pdf">judgment </a>earlier today on the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/15/south-africa-to-fight-omar-al-bashirs-arrest-warrant-sudan">failure</a> of the Government to arrest Sudanese President Omar Al-Bashir last June. This judgment confirms an earlier decision, which found that the Government should have arrested Al-Bashir and transferred him to The Hague. </div>
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The decision has some interesting things to say about immunity of sitting heads of state under international law. Following the International Court of Justice's position on this point, it declines to hold that there is an 'international crimes exception' to the immunity enjoyed by heads of state before foreign national courts. Instead, it finds that the domestic legislation - South Africa's Implementation Act - waives the immunity of heads of state or government. </div>
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The wording of the <a href="http://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/acts/2002-027.pdf">Implementation Act</a> does, however, contain a potentially important difference to Article 27 of the ICC Statute on irrelevance of official capacity. Section 4(2) of the the Act states that:</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(2) </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite any other law to the contrary, including customary and conventional
international law, the fact that a person</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">—</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
(a) is or was a head of State or government, a member of a government or
parliament, an elected representative or a government official; or</div>
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(b) being a member of a security service or armed force, was under a legal
obligation to obey a manifestly unlawful order of a government or superior, is
neither—</div>
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(i) a defence to a crime; nor</div>
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(ii) a ground for any possible reduction of sentence once a person has been</div>
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convicted of a crime.</div>
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This is essentially a reflection of Article 27(1) of the ICC Statute, except that the term 'defence' in the South African act is used instead of the ICC Statute's, arguably broader, term of 'exempt[ing] a person from criminal responsibility'. However, as Dapo Akande has <a href="http://www.ejiltalk.org/icc-issues-detailed-decision-on-bashir%E2%80%99s-immunity-at-long-last-but-gets-the-law-wrong/">previously noted</a>, 'To say that official capacity does not exclude criminal responsibility is not necessarily to say that the person may not be immune from the jurisdiction of particular tribunals'. Crucially for me, there is no equivalent provision to Article 27(2) of the Statute in the domestic Act - this is the provision which states that: </div>
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Immunities or special procedural rules which may attach to the official capacity of a person, whether under national or international law, shall not bar the Court from exercising its jurisdiction over such a person.</blockquote>
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In the absence of an equivalent provision in the South African Act, I am not convinced of the Court's conclusion that section 4(2) 'is a clear indication that South Africa does not support immunities when people are charged with international crimes.' Certainly, it does not support the invocation of official capacity as a <i>defence </i>to international crimes, but there is nothing in the Act that stops the accused from raising immunity as a bar to jurisdiction, which is an entirely different matter. The question of whether heads of state of non-State Parties are entitled to immunity, especially in light of Article 98(1) of the ICC Statute, remains far from fully resolved.</div>
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Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-43585258867138102332016-02-07T21:26:00.000+00:002016-02-07T21:26:01.651+00:00Celebrating the Four Freedoms: Freedom from Fear<div style="border: 0px; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.799999237060547px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 1em; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;">
“The fourth is freedom from fear—which, translated into world terms, means a world-wide</div>
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reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in</div>
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a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor—anywhere in the world.”</div>
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– Franklin Delano Roosevelt</div>
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<br /></div>
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I am delighted, as part of the University of Iowa Center forHuman Rights’ 75<span style="border: 0px; bottom: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">th</span> anniversary celebration of the Four Freedoms Speech, to consider Roosevelt’s fourth and final freedom – freedom from fear. David Keane pondered whether the four freedoms ought to be considered in terms of hierarchy and he suggested that freedom of speech might come out tops – not just because it is the first of the freedoms but because freedom of speech is a “gateway” right. This may be so but freedom from fear outranks the others in its own ways. On the one hand, freedom from fear was the most ambitious of Roosevelt’s four (although ‘freedom from want’ puts up quite the challenge). Freedom from fear represented the aspiration of an international prohibition on aggression or, indeed, the “human right to peace”<a href="http://uichr.org/2016/02/celebrating-the-four-freedoms-freedom-from-fear/#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="border: 0px; color: #7ebec5; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">[1]</a>. There is though another way of reading Roosevelt’s fourth freedom. Freedom from fear was in fact the leitmotif of the entire speech. Fear is invoked ambiguously – equivocally, even – both as a provocation, to rally public support and to justify American intervention in the war, and as a promise, of future freedom. In other words, Roosevelt was telling the American public – in order to enjoy this freedom, in order to secure freedom from fear, we must go to war. From a rhetorical perspective, by neatly and rhythmically rounding off the four freedoms, freedom from fear represented the alliterative crowning glory of Roosevelt’s speech and his call to intervention.</div>
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As Shane Darcy and Brian Farrell have noted, Roosevelt’s four freedoms sowed the seeds for the post-war international order and also played a sizeable role in the development of the international system of human rights. So where, beyond the preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, does freedom from fear feature in this international system? What does freedom from fear even mean? And, perhaps more importantly, how are we doing in the achievement of this freedom?</div>
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Freedom from aggression is not as aurally evocative but that is essentially what Roosevelt meant by freedom from fear. His vision, on a surface reading of the speech, was an end to aggressive wars precipitated by an end to the production of arms. The Atlantic Charter, the joint declaration signed by Churchill and Roosevelt in Newfoundland in August 1941, articulating their war aims and their vision of a post-war international order, incorporated, and elaborated on, the idea of freedom from fear. Principle six envisaged: “…after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny … a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want”. Principle eight contemplated a ban on the use of force in international relations and the disarmament of aggressive nations: “… all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers …. pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security … the disarmament of such nations is essential.”</div>
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The United Nations Charter – conceived of and drafted in the throes of the war – codifies a system of collective security, underpinned by the infamous ban, under Art 2(4), on the threat or use of force in international relations. The Charter specifies exceptions to this ban. Under article 42, the Security Council is authorised to take measures “as may be necessary to restore international peace and security”. Under article 51, Member states are endowed with “the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member”. More recently, in 2010, following a fraught process, the Rome Statute of the permanent International Criminal Court (established in 1998) was amended to include the crime of aggression. The Rome Statute defines in detail an act of aggression as a manifest violation of the UN Charter and provides a jurisdictional regime for the prosecution of that crime. The limitations to and the challenges inherent in the UN Charter use of force regime are well known. These range from interpretative indeterminacy around the scope and meaning of “armed attack” and of self-defense to endless debates around the legality or propriety of humanitarian intervention. The permanent membership of the Security Council, invested as it is with the authority to determine threats to international peace and security, exacerbates the legal and political contestation. For interpretative and geopolitical reasons, it is easy to see that the prosecution of the crime of aggression will be a challenge.</div>
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Do, then, the UN Charter and the crime of aggression fulfil Roosevelt’s aspiration of freedom from fear? Certainly, Roosevelt would have applauded the international prohibition and criminalisation of acts of aggression. He did not, however, only advocate a legislative ban on aggression. He saw a direct link between the production of arms and the use of force. His vision was, arguably, not just for a ban on the use of force but for a ban on the production of weapons in order to deter or prevent aggression. The United Nations does promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation as well as the disarmament of biological, chemical and conventional weapons. The Office for Disarmament Affairs admits to some of the challenges it faces – political and technical. But let’s be clear, the biggest challenge to disarmament is economic. Weapons are big business.</div>
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The disarmament paradox was explicit in Roosevelt’s speech. He asked Congress outright for the authority to manufacture additional munitions and war supplies for the Allies and for American defense. There may be little doubt today about the justification for this supply of “ships, planes, tanks, guns” or the propriety of American involvement in the war. But this is the point – just war is always in the eye of the beholder. The beholder is rarely the aggressor. Weapons’ manufacture is always for defense. Roosevelt’s speech was not a call to global disarmament nor was it an absolute appeal to end aggression – it was an appeal to end ‘their’ access to arms, their aggression. From a political, military or foreign policy perspective, this, for many, is not controversial – of course a nation will justify its own defense and its resort to war. However, this speech is memorialised for the four freedoms that Roosevelt envisaged. Those four freedoms may now be reflected in international human rights law. The strategy of Roosevelt’s speech is also an enduring one, however. Just as in 1941, today, freedoms and rights are instrumentalised, and reflected, in justifications for armed conflict, self-defense and military/humanitarian intervention.</div>
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Freedom from fear was one of the ‘ends’ of Roosevelt’s policy. But fear was also one of his means to achieve this ‘end’. His speech opened with the spectre of the unprecedented threat – “No previous time has American security been as seriously threatened from without as it is today”. It culminated in an invocation of the “supremacy of human rights everywhere”. To bridge that gap, it was necessary to fight for rights, literally.</div>
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Without a doubt, Roosevelt’s words had impact. But freedom from fear, and what it represents, was then, and remains, a slippery concept.</div>
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<em style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Michelle Farrell is a senior lecturer in law at the School of Law and Social Justice, University of Liverpool. She is also currently a <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/humanrights/aboutus/fellows#OBRIENRESIDENCE" style="border: 0px; color: #7ebec5; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">Fellow in Residence in the Centre for Human Rights and Legal Pluralism</a>, University of McGill.</em></div>
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<a href="http://uichr.org/2016/02/celebrating-the-four-freedoms-freedom-from-fear/#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="border: 0px; color: #7ebec5; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">[1]</a> See William A. Schabas, ‘Freedom from Fear and the human right to peace’ in David Keane and Yvonne McDermott, <em style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">The Challenge of Human Rights: Past, Present and Future </em>(Edward Elgar, 2012) 36 for a discussion of freedom from fear as the forgotten human right to peace.</div>
Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-65779023209149761852016-02-07T21:25:00.001+00:002016-02-07T21:26:13.830+00:00Celebrating the Four Freedoms: Freedom from Want<div style="border: 0px; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.799999237060547px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 1em; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;">
“The third is freedom from want . . . everywhere in the world.”</div>
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– Franklin Delano Roosevelt</div>
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The first and second of the Four Freedoms articulated by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during his State of the Union speech on January 6, 1941, would have seemed familiar and comfortable to most listeners. After all, the freedom of speech and freedom of religion were two classic limits on the power of government – what we often call “negative” rights, or civil and political rights. Such rights were at the core of the American constitutional order, enshrined in the Bill of Rights.</div>
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As Roosevelt continued his speech, he identified two additional Freedoms of a very different character. The third of the Four Freedoms was “freedom from want – which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants – everywhere in the world.” This was followed by freedom from fear. Unlike the first two Freedoms, these did not limit government interference with the individual; rather, they contemplated an affirmative government obligation to deliver these societal necessities to its citizens.</div>
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Although not rooted in the Bill of Rights in the same way as the previous Freedoms, the freedom from want would not have appeared as an entirely novel concept. It evoked the legislative development of a social safety net as part of Roosevelt’s domestic New Deal. Earlier in the speech, the President pointed to economic security as one of the foundations of a healthy democracy. He called for “Equality of opportunity for youth and others. Jobs for those who can work. Security for those who need it. The ending of special privilege for the few.” The rise of European fascism in the 1930s was at least partially a result of the dire economic conditions that prevailed during the early years of the Depression. Freedom from want, then, was not just an altruistic goal. It was also a strategy aimed at ensuring a stable and peaceful post-war world.</div>
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Indeed, when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the United Natiosl General Assembly on December 10, 1948, it proclaimed that “recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world.” Among the inalienable rights enumerated in the Universal Declaration were the right to social security (Ar. 22); the right to work (Art. 23); and the right to an adequate standard of living, “including food, clothing, housing, and medical care” (Art. 25).</div>
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While the freedom from want was articulated in these and other articles of the Universal Declaration, the Declaration itself was framed as being a “common standard of achievement,” rather than a binding legal document. Thus, the question of how to interpret and enforce these principles did not carry immediate urgency. As the human rights system matured, however, such issues became troublesome. Was a state truly under an obligation to guarantee jobs for all? What level of housing or medical care was “adequate?” Would these answers be viewed differently depending whether a state was poor or wealthy? Moreover, the discourse became colored by the politics of the cold war, as Soviet bloc states frequently advocated for these economic and social rights while Western states championed civil and political rights.</div>
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Ultimately, the effort to create a binding human rights framework was bifurcated, and two treaties emerged from the General Assembly in 1966: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. The split has been viewed by many as unfortunate because it can lead to “prioritization” of rights (usually the view that the rights in the former treaty take priority over the latter). In any event, the two Covenants frame state obligations differently. Whereas the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights simply directs states to respect and ensure those rights, the Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights takes a different approach. It requires that each signatory “undertakes to take steps, individually and through international assistance and co-operation, especially economic and technical, to the maximum of its available resources, with a view to achieving progressively the full realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by all appropriate means, including particularly the adoption of legislative measure.” This language recognizes that, unlike, for example, the prohibition against torture, many economic and social rights cannot be immediately realized and are dependent on a state’s resources.</div>
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Following adoption of the Covenant there have been further attempts to clarify how freedom from want is to be understood and implemented. In 1999, for example, the U.N. Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights adopted a “general comment” on the right to food. It explained that the right to food meant the availability of food in a quantity and quality sufficient to satisfy the dietary and cultural needs of individuals, in a sustainable manner. The Committee went on to identify three levels of state obligation: first, a state cannot prevent existing access to food; second, it must protect against interference with an individual’s access by third parties; third, it must engage in activities intended to strengthen access to and production of food; and fourth, it must provide food if an individual is unable to secure food for reasons beyond their control.</div>
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In turn, these obligations beg the question of enforcement. It is not unusual for a court to find a person has been unlawfully detained and order them released from jail, but the same judge may be much less comfortable determining whether a state has met its obligations under the right to an adequate standard of living. And if violation is found, how does the court compel a state to implement legislative policies and allocate resources to fulfil its obligations, particularly if the state does not have the financial resources to do so? These are difficult issues that reflect as much about the judiciary as about the nature of economic and social rights, although courts in countries like India and South Africa have shown that courts can address such issues.</div>
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Of course, the complexity of interpreting and enforcing economic and social rights highlights the very existence and growth of these rights. “Freedom from want,” a principle articulated by an American president in 1941, has actually been incorporated into the international post-war order in the form of binding universal human rights. This, in itself, is quite remarkable.</div>
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<em style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Dr. Brian Farrell is Lecturer in Law and Associate Director of the Center for Human Rights at the University of Iowa.</em></div>
Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-46820805298171415022016-01-19T16:40:00.001+00:002016-01-19T16:40:20.260+00:00Florida’s Death Penalty Law Ruled Unconstitutional<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Last week, in an 8-1 decision, the United
States Supreme Court invalidated the State of Florida’s death penalty statute.
In a January 12 opinion in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hurst v.
Florida</i>, the Court held that the law violated the Sixth Amendment by
allowing the trial judge, rather than the jury, to make the ultimate decision
on punishment. While capital juries in Florida did render an “advisory
sentence,” this did not satisfy the requirement previously set forth by the
Supreme Court in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ring v. Arizona</i> that
a jury must find the facts necessary to sentence a defendant to death. In
Hurst’s case, the jury’s 7-5 vote for the death penalty was only a
recommendation, and did not specify aggravating facts. The Supreme Court’s
opinion, <a href="http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/15pdf/14-7505_5ie6.pdf">available
here</a>, was authored by Associate Justice Sonia Sotomayor. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">While the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hurst</i> opinion does not touch on the bigger question of the continued
constitutionality of the death penalty in the United States, it marks another
restriction imposed by the federal judiciary. This comes at a time when the
number of death sentences and executions is on the decline nationally, and the
number of abolitionist states continues to grow. In 2015, Nebraska became the
nineteenth American state to abolish the death penalty, and governors have
imposed moratoriums on executions in another four. Only six states actually carried
out executions in 2015. As Harvard Law Professor James Ogletree writes in a <a href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2016/01/data_and_charts_show_few_states_impose_the_death_penalty.single.html">recent
article in Slate</a>, in the United States “the death penalty is collapsing
under the weight of its own corruption and cruelty.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">This post was contributed by Dr. Brian Farrell, who is a Lecturer in Law and
Associate Director of the <a href="http://www.uichr.org/">Center for Human
Rights</a> at the University of Iowa College of Law. Follow him on Twitter at @IowaLawFarrell.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-44984102623473236352016-01-06T09:49:00.000+00:002016-01-06T09:49:00.948+00:00Darcy: Celebrating the Four Freedoms: Freedom of Religion<div style="border: 0px; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.799999237060547px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 1em; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;">
“The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way – everywhere in the world”.</div>
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– Franklin Delano Roosevelt.</div>
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I am pleased to contribute a short essay to the University of Iowa Center of Human Rights’ celebration of the ‘Four Freedoms’ speech, delivered by United States President Roosevelt in January 1941. Those working in this field are well aware that the speech itself and the context of the Second World War in which it was made gave significant impetus to important human rights developments, including the emergence of an international system aimed at protecting and promoting human rights. That system continues to evolve, to elaborate on the substance and meaning of human rights, and to identify where responsibility lies for ensuring respect for human rights.</div>
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In considering the second of the four freedoms referred to by Roosevelt in his address, “the freedom of every person to worship God in his own way – everywhere in the world”, it is instructive to look at how this right is elaborated upon in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 18 provides that:</div>
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Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.</div>
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But what if one’s religion and its manifestation harms the human rights of others? Today, there remain numerous examples of violations of rights and freedoms carried out in the name of religion. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which replicates the provision from the Universal Declaration, purposefully adds that freedom of religion might be subject to such limitations “as are prescribed by law and are necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals or <em style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">the fundamental rights and freedoms of others</em>”. The Universal Declaration states that nothing in the instrument can be taken as “implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein”.</div>
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The tension that may arise between freedom of religion and the rights and freedoms of others came to the fore in a recent case from Northern Ireland. Gareth Lee took a successful claim against Asher’s Baking Company because of the refusal by the bakery to prepare a cake with a message in support of gay marriage. This constituted discrimination on the grounds of his sexual orientation and political opinion, according to Judge Brownlie of the Northern Ireland county court. According to the judge:</div>
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Much as I acknowledge fully their religious belief is that gay marriage is sinful, they are in a business supplying services to all, however constituted. The law requires them to do just that, subject to the graphic being lawful and not contrary to the terms and conditions of the company. […] The defendants are entitled to continue to hold their genuine and deeply held religious beliefs and to manifest them but, in accordance with the law, not to manifest them in the commercial sphere if it is contrary to the rights of others.</div>
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The case demonstrates how freedom of worship, as Roosevelt described it, can be problematic when the manifestation of one’s religion moves from the private individual sphere to the public, such as when conducting business. Religion and belief are of course not entirely private or closed affairs for many individuals and groups and public manifestations are a common and often intrinsic part of the exercise of religious freedom “in community with others”. The Northern Ireland court drew the line, however, where such religious belief harmed the rights of others in the context of business activities. The bakery has appealed the decision.</div>
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The relationship between business and human rights has garnered considerable attention over the past decade at the United Nations. Business enterprises, in particular multinational corporations, have been the focus of concerted efforts which seek to ensure that they respect human rights throughout their operations. While this may seem a departure from the traditional State-centric approach of international human rights law, it is readily apparent today that human rights can be violated by the actions of so-called non-State actors. The United States is currently preparing a national implementation plan for the UN’s Guiding Principles on business and human rights, and in doing so, may need to grapple with the call for so-called ‘conscience clauses’ which would legally allow companies to refuse to provide services on the basis of religious belief.</div>
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In his Four Freedoms speech, Roosevelt had called for a concerted effort to meet the challenges being faced by the United States during the Second World War: “A free nation has the right to expect full cooperation from all groups. A free nation has the right to look to the leaders of business, of labor, and of agriculture to take the lead in stimulating effort.” He was referring here to the necessity of increased arms production, while looking forward to a future of reduced armaments world wide. When the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, it similarly considered that “every individual and every organ of society” had a role to play in promoting respect and securing the “universal and effective recognition and observance” of human rights. Business enterprises can contribute to both the realisation or indeed the harming of human rights, much like States themselves.</div>
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<em style="background-color: transparent; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-style: italic; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Dr. Shane Darcy is a lecturer at the Irish Centre for Human Rights and the editor of the </em><em style="background-color: transparent; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-style: italic; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://businesshumanrightsireland.wordpress.com/" style="background-color: transparent; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 0px; color: #7ebec5; font-size: 14px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">Business and Human Rights in Ireland</a> </em><em style="background-color: transparent; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 0px; font-size: 14px; font-style: italic; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">blog.</em></div>
<em style="border: 0px; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.799999237060547px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">This short essay is one in a series celebrating the 75th anniversary of the Four Freedoms speech, and is cross-posted from the UICHR’s Four Freedoms <a href="http://uichr.org/2016/01/four-freedoms/">webpage</a>.</em>Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4605495417463810012.post-52846148692845391972016-01-06T09:45:00.001+00:002016-01-06T09:46:18.135+00:00Keane: Celebrating the Four Freedoms: Freedom of Speech and Expression<div style="border: 0px; color: #666666; font-family: 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 23.799999237060547px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 1em; text-align: right; vertical-align: baseline;">
“The first is freedom of speech and expression – everywhere in the world.”<br />
– Franklin Delano Roosevelt.</div>
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Should we think of the four freedoms in terms of a hierarchy? If so, then freedom of speech and expression comes top, as the first enumerated in Roosevelt’s speech, although the speech itself gives no indication beyond the numbers that some of the freedoms are of more importance than others. In contemporary international human rights law, the United Nations emphasises that “[a]ll human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent and interrelated”, meaning that there is no ranking. For many however, freedom of speech and expression is a ‘gateway right’ essential to the realisation of all other rights. In other words, it is more important than many other rights for it underscores the conditions required for the realisation of a just domestic and world order essential to the articulation and implementation of global rights standards. Thus the 1789 French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a precursor of the contemporary documents, described free communication of thoughts and opinions as “one of the most precious rights” (Article 11).</div>
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It is understood that freedom of expression is not unlimited, but the nature of limitations on freedom of expression varies from a global perspective. Firstly, there is universal agreement on the need for a free press and other essential tools of expression. But differences arise in relation to the need to protect minorities and others from harmful speech, with marked differences in global perspectives. What is considered protected speech in the United States, usually the strongest advocate at the international stage, can be a crime in Europe – both regions sharing common legal traditions. This may be amplified when contrasted with other regions of the world. The role of speech in the commission of atrocities, notably the Rwandan genocide, has played out in international criminal tribunals – the so-called ‘media trial’ of Ferdinand Nahimana and others before the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda focused on the use of radio to instill hatred in listeners and foster genocidal intent. The role of similar propaganda in the conditioning of the German public to turn on its Jewish minority before the militarised genocide of the Holocaust was also a feature of the Nuremberg trials of Julius Streicher and others. These extreme situations have led to the understanding that incitement to violence or atrocities cannot be protected by freedom of expression and so it does not have the absolute status at the international level of, say, the prohibition on torture.</div>
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A more problematic situation was the so-called ‘Danish cartoons’ controversy, which lasted over a decade and culminated in the shootings one year ago in Paris of the Charlie-Hebdo cartoonists. The shootings were widely depicted as an assault on freedom of expression. There were two strands to the linking of freedom of expression and the cartoons. Firstly, that the cartoons are protected by the right to freedom of expression. Secondly, that the cartoons themselves somehow represented the right to freedom of expression; that they are symbolic of this right and by desisting from drawing them, the wider right itself was under threat. On the first, European cartoonists were not prosecuted for producing the cartoons, which leads to the conclusion that they were protected by freedom of expression (although the debate is a nuanced one given the existence of laws protecting racial and religious groups in Europe). The second is much more difficult – why did these cartoons become invested with this symbolic defence of freedom of expression? And should they have been? There is no answer, but there has long been an acceptance in Europe that certain forms of speech are not tolerated. The European Court of Human Rights regularly upholds prosecutions of those who attack minorities through speech, in particular racial and religious groups. The attacks in Paris (both of them) should not impact the balancing act inherent in protecting European minorities while upholding freedom of expression and related values. These debates will continue and while everyone is agreed on the fundamental importance of freedom of expression, and its securing “everywhere in the world”, blanket articulation of freedom of expression can also lack nuance essential in finding the right balance. There is an interesting story told about freedom of expression by the South African judge, Albie Sachs:</div>
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“I once shared a platform at a Book Fair in Sweden with the Nobel Prize winning Nigerian writer, Wole Soyinka, and Nadine Strossen, a distinguished leader of the American Civil Liberties Union, an extremely articulate and persuasive defender of free speech. Nadine spoke forcefully and fluently in favour of virtually unlimited free speech. Wole then started his response in a way that I found surprising and disconcerting. ‘We have just been listening to a white middle-class woman from America’, he told us in his deep voice, ‘giving us a typical lecture of the kind we can expect from a white middle-class American woman.’ Nadine went pale. The audience was embarrassed. I felt a degree of shame that a great writer from my continent could dismiss her arguments in that shallow way. Wole paused for a moment, relaxed his stern posture, and added more quietly: ‘You see, Nadine? These were just words. And they hurt, didn’t they?’”</div>
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Wole’s speech went on to describe the role of words, speakers and broadcasters in inciting massacres in his native northern Nigeria. Sachs continues:</div>
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“Normally I’m a great defender of free speech against any form of control. Normally I am concerned about censorship and thought control, about the importance in an open society of not suppressing alternative and unpopular views. But at the same time I believe that the right to say what I like, when I like, to whom I like, has to acknowledge the demeaning and destructive impact that words may have in a particular context… In sum, the libertarian right to speak your mind has to be balanced against profound constitutional values of shared citizenship.”</div>
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Sachs defended individuals being prosecuted under apartheid laws, one of the most repressive regimes of the UN era including widespread curtailment on freedom of expression, so his balanced understanding of freedom of expression is worth noting. This is particularly so given that, technically, we are realising “freedom of speech and expression – everywhere in the world”, with the internet age. Roosevelt’s first freedom may actually, to a certain extent, have arrived. Although the extent to which the marginalised partake in this freedom is also worth reflecting on, including connectivity gaps between men and women in particular in developing countries. Similarly many of the basics remain the same as they did in Roosevelt’s time, including protection for those who criticise, as journalists, bloggers, writers, human rights defenders or citizens, balanced with the need to ensure that minorities and other groups are afforded protections as well as access.</div>
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<em style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Dr. David Keane is Associate Professor in International Human Rights Law at Middlesex University, London, UK.</em><br />
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<em style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">This short essay is one in a series celebrating the 75th anniversary of the Four Freedoms speech, and is cross-posted from the UICHR’s Four Freedoms <a href="http://uichr.org/2016/01/four-freedoms/">webpage</a>.</em></div>
Yvonne McDermott Reeshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17305981140088628777noreply@blogger.com0